Apollodorus of Damascus

Architect, Engineer (60 – 125)

The greatest architect in Greek history and the royal architect of Emperors Trajan and his successor Hadrian. His creations, both beautiful and practical, exhibit impressive functionality even for modern-day standards and serve as incarnations of the immortal Hellenic spirit and ideals. A polymath with contributions to military engineering and philosophy, Apollodorus’ name surpassed the borders of the Roman Empire and was hailed as one of the greatest scientific minds of his time. Two of his most famous creations, Trajan’s Forum and the Pantheon of Rome serve as Hellenism’s eternal testaments to humanity.

Apollodorus came from Damascus of Syria, at the time colonized by the Greeks. During Trajan’s expedition in Dracia Apollodorus served as his chief engineer. He was comissioned to construct what would be known as the Pontes Traiani or Trajan’s Bridge, which connected both shores of the Danube River. Stretching at a length of 1135 meters, this arched bridge was made of wood and stone and was joined by two “iron gates” at both ends, which served as fortresses. Although only parts of it survive today, depictions of it can still be seen in coins and reliefs while descriptions of it left by Procopius also survive.

Following the Dracian wars, Apollodorus constructed Trajan’s Baths on the hill of Esquilinum. This enormous complex boasted a gymnasium, auditoriums, libraries and artificial cysternae for water storage. Between 107 and 113 Apollodorus built the Forum of Trajan, a complex consisting of multiple buildings which housed, among other things, markets, archives as well as two libraries, one Latin and one Greek. The forum has numerous temples namely for Athena, Venus, Mars as well as for Trajan and his wife themselves. The Forum is widely regarded as Apollodorus’ greatest architectural endeavour as well as a masterpiece exhibiting incredible technological craftsmanship.

Arguably of insuperable beauty and artistry is the Pantheon, one of the most well preserved ancient structures in all of Rome. Built in 123 by Apollodorus, the Pantheon has a round rotonda of 43,3 diameter which symbolizes the celestial sphere. As its name suggests, it was dedicated to all of the Gods. It is to this day one of the most memorable monuments of Italy as well as of the entire world, which subsequently inspired the construction of similar Panthea.

Other structures constructed by Apollodorus in Rome were the Odeon of Domitian, the Mercatus Trajani or Market of Trajan, which housed over 150 different shops and offices, the hippodrome next to the Mausoleum of Hadrian and the Aqueduct of Trajan. He paved many roads and avenues that connected cities, built the city harbour in Civitavecchia and constructed the Tropaeum Trajani, a commemorative building in Adamclisi for the Dracian wars.

Not surprisingly, Apollodorus was also involved with the construction of war machines as preserved in his writings Poliorcetica, where he describes several machines used in battles, such as the poliorcetic climax, a siege engine used to conquer walled cities and the poliorcetic turtoise, an engine resembling the shape of a turtle used for penetration of armies. It possessed wheels and a large tube which unleashed fire.

It is safe to assume that no other architect or engineer existed at the time as prolific as Apollodorus, who could combine practicality with beauty so flawlessly in his creations. With Apollodorus Greek architecture reached its apogee. Without a doubt Apollodorus made Rome stand out from the rest of the cities of the Roman Empire and made it worthy as its capitol.

Bibliography:

1. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. (1998). Ancient Greek Scientists. Georgiades Publications. Athens.
2. Blyth, P. H.. Apollodorus of Damascus and the Poliorcetica.

Stilpo

Philosopher (380 BC – 300 BC)

Stilpo was the major representative of the Megarean School of Philosophy, alongside its founder Euclid of Megara. He was a student of Diogenes the Cynic and teacher of Menedemus of the School of Eretria and of Zenon of Citium. Although all of his treatises have been lost, we know from contemporary authors that Stilpo developed a sophisticated work on ethics and logic.

Stilpo was particularly known for his austerity to his ethical moral codes, which he never defied. He believed that spiritual virtues are important for one’s living and spiritual cultivation the highest of which is the apathy of the soul, meaning a soul free of the temptations of worldly desires and possessions. True knowledge comes only from logical reasoning and not from the five senses.

Concerning the logic of Stilpo, he argued that an object or being cannot be both ideal and perceptible to the five senses simultaneously, rather that the ideal is the only real. Stilpo’s example with the cabbage is noteworthy in that the cabbage which we see in the grocery shop is not a real cabbage. The real cabbage is the ideal one, which has existed and will exist in the eternity of time. Therefore the cabbage presented before us is not a real cabbage. Stilpo rejected Plato’s Theory of Ideas as well as Leucippus‘ and Democritus‘ atomic theory, stating that the being is indivisible, unborn and immortal. Diogenes Laertius attributes 9 books to Stilpo on the subjects of philosophy, logic and ethics, which, like Plato‘s books were written in the form of dialogues.

Having achieved great fame in Athens, Stilpo was able to establish the Megarean School of Thought as a powerful voice of alternative reason in Greece, attracting numerous people as well as eminent thinkers of his time, who attended his lectures. Such was his prestige that Demetrius the Conquerer (Poliorketes), King of Macedonia ordered to spare his house when his army invaded Megara. He went as far as to visit him in his house after the raid to be assured whether he had not been robbed of anything, to which Stilpo replied: “I didn’t notice anyone taking away science”. Furthermore, Stilpo had earned Ptolemy I Soter‘s admiration, who presented him with a large sum of money, offering him a position in Egypt alongside him. Truthful, however, to his teachings Stilpo returned the money and declined, preferring to live a life of moderation in Aegina in accordance to his conscience.

Bibliography:

1. Pleures, Konstantinos. (1968). Greek Philosophers. Hilektron Publications. Athens: 2014.
2. Στίλπων ο Μεγαρεύς (360 – 280 π.κ.χ.). Η Τέχνη στην Ελλάδα. 8 Φεβρουαρίου 2012. Διαθέσιμον εἰς: http://art-hellas.blogspot.com/2012/06/360-280.html
3. Stilpo. Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Available at: https://iep.utm.edu/stilpo/

Philo of Byzantium

Engineer, Inventor (c.260 BC – c.180 BC)

Philo was one of the greatest engineers of the Hellenistic period, a pioneer in mechanics and the construction of automata. He was one alongside many illustrious scholars who worked in Alexandria, the most highly advanced spiritual center in the Western World at the time.

Philo was a student of the famed engineer Ctesibius. He descended from the city of Byzantium, lived in Rhodes and eventually settled in Alexandria. He compiled numerous treatises on applied mechanics, the most important of which is Michaniki Syntaxis (Mechanical Syntax), an encyclopaedia which includes descriptions and applications of multiple inventions. Other treatises such as Mochlika described the use of levers while Pneumatica contains studies on machines oeparted by air and steam.

Having suided next to giants of engineering, Philo was able to advance the science of engineering to a remarkable degree. His treatises attest an extraordinary level of expertise in multiple different fields of engineering. He constructed pneumatics, machines which functioned with the use of compressed air, levers, tools and hourglasses. Philo invented the piston, the air pump, several toys as well as household appliances used in everyday life.

As Diades of Pella was a master craftsman of military war machines, so was Philo with the construction of ballistas, catapults and crossbows. Philo’s war machines were used in the besieging of well-fortified city-states and operated using large rocks or arrows. His ballistas operated on compressed air. Furthermore, he built walls, towers and fortifications of cities as well as harbours and ports. Philo also invented a sibilant system which was placed in lighthouses.

It should come to no surprise that as a predecessor of Hero of Alexandria, Philo was one of the pioneers in automatic machines, two of which are known and have been reconstructed today. These were the hydroautomaton horse drinking water and the maiden pouring water in a krater. These automata were used more as a means of entertainment rather than to serve practical purposes, however, they exhibit a high level of knowledge on physics and demonstrate the apogee which technology had reached during the Hellenistic period by the Greeks.

Undoubtedly Philo was a master engineer who showed that he could put theoretical knowledge into practice. His extensive studies on physics, primarily in the field of aerodynamics and thermodynamics, his works in mathematics and the doubling of the cube, as well as in cryptography are all but mere testaments of this man’s genius.

Bibliography:

1. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. (1998). Ancient Greek Scientists. Georgiades Publications. Athens.
2. Kotsanas, Kostas. (2013) Ancient Greek Technology The Inventions of the ancient Greeks. Kostas Kotsanas Publications. Pyrgos.
3. Rance, Philip. (2013). “Philo of Byzantium”. The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, Chapter: “Philo of Byzantium”, Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell, Editors: R.S. BAGNALL et al, pp.5266-8
4. Φίλων ο Βυζάντιος (280 Π.Χ. 220 Π.Χ.). Δίοδος η Πύλη της Γνώσης. October 12, 2018. Available at: https://www.diodos.gr/%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%B1-%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%B1/%CE%B5%CF%86%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%81%CE%AD%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%82/item/%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%BB%CF%89%CE%BD-%CE%BF-%CE%B2%CF%85%CE%B6%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82-280-%CF%80-%CF%87-220-%CF%80-%CF%87.html. Retrieved August 3^rd, 2020.

Chares of Lindos

Sculptor, Architect (4^th century BC)

The initiate of the Ancient Mysteries Chares was a sculptor and architect from Rhodes and a student of the great sculptor Lysippus. He created the Colossus of Rhodes, one of the Seven Wonders of the World and the tallest statue ever built for 2100 years.

The exact date of his birth and death are not known, but based on the accounts of ancient writers and historians Chares lived during the 4^th century BC, referred to as the Hellenistic times. At that time Greece was experiencing an age of great technological and mathematical advancement. The Library of Alexandria and the Museum were but a mere testament of the level of spiritual cultivation Greece had achieved. Furthermore, the empire of Alexander the Great was ruled over by his Diadochi, most importantly Ptolemaic Egypt, where the progress of science and technology were greatly promoted.

It was during this period when Chares was given the task to construct an enormous bronze statue of Apollo which would be placed on the entrance of the harbour of Rhodes. Before this enormous undertaking, few gargantuan statues had been sculpted, most notably the 15 meter statue of Zeus and the 12 meter statue of Athena Parthenos in Olympia and the Parthenon respectively by the master initiate Pheidias.

Funding for the construction of the Colossus came from selling the war machines left behind by Demetrius Poliorcetes after the great siege of Rhodes in 305 BC. It was built in a period of 12 years and was completed in 280 BC. Weighing a total of 225 tonnes, the Colossus of Rhodes became the tallest sculpture ever created by man, standing at an intimidating height of 33 meters. This achievement was not surpassed for 2100 years until the Statue of Liberty was built in 1886, which is only 11 meters taller than the Colossus of Rhodes. Due to its immense size, Chares utilized a unique method of construction which employed the use of multiple beams placed so that they could hold the statue in place and prevent it from collapsing. The Colossus was thus built from the bottom to the top. Pliny states that the Colossus was so big that very few were those who could fully embrace their hands around the Colossus’ thumb. The Colossus held a torch with its hand at the top of its head which was lit with fire.

Numerous ancient writers and historians mention the Colossus of Rhodes in their writings, including Pliny, Strabo, Stobaeus, Polybius and Philo of Byzantium, all of whom express their amazement for the construction of such a marvellous structure. Pliny refers to the Colossus as a masterpiece while contemporary archaeologist and academic Nigel Spivey wrote that with the Colossus of Rhodes Chares of Lindos gave the world a second sun.

The Colossus of Rhodes stood in place for 56 years until an earthquake caused it to break at the level of the knees and collapse. Nevertheless, the Colossus was displayed in Rhodes in lying position as the Rhodians, upon receiving a divination from the Oracle of Delphi, did not restore it. Many years later the remains of the Colossus were purchased by a Jewish merchant, who used 700 camels to transport the bronze fragments to Syria.

The Colossus of Rhodes represented the level of perfection the Greeks had achieved in architecture and sculpture during the Hellenistic era as well as the ideals which the Greeks had placed in the epicenter of their souls: spiritual light.

Bibliography:

1. Γεωργακόπουλος, Κωνσταντίνος. 1995. Ἀρχαῖοι Ἕλληνες Θετικοὶ Ἐπιστήμονες. Ἐκδόσεις Γεωργιάδης. Β’ Ἔκδοσις. Ἀθῆναι.
2. Λάζος, Χρήστος Δ. (2008). Μηχανική καί Τεχνολογία στην άρχαία Ρόδο. Σελ. 165. Εκδόσεις Σαββιού. ISBN 978-960-98603-0-7
3. Manly P. Hall (1928). The Secret Teachings of All Ages. Dover Publications, INC. Mineola, New York. Print.
4. Η μεγάλη πολιορκία της Ρόδου όπου χρησιμοποιήθηκε για πρώτη φορά η πολεμική μηχανή Ελέπολις ύψους 45 μέτρων. Μετά τη μάχη εκποίησαν τον μηχανισμό και ανήγειραν τον Κολοσσό… Μηχανή του Χρόνου. Mixanitouxronou.gr. Διαθέσιμον εἰς: http://www.mixanitouxronou.gr/i-megali-poliorkia-tis-rodoy-opoy-chrisimopoiithike-gia-proti-fora-i-polemiki-michani-elepolis-ypsoys-45-metron-meta-ti-machi-ekpoiisan-ton-michanismo-kai-anigeiran-ton-kolosso/

Strato

Philosopher, Mathematician, Physicist, Scholar (c.320 BC – c.270 BC)

Straton of Lampsacus was an Aristotelian philosopher. He succeeded Theophrastus as the third headmaster of the Peripatetic School of philosophy, also known as Aristotle‘s Lyceum. Strato was primarily involved with the physical aspects of Aristotle’s philosophy, which he analysed and expanded upon, earning the title of “physicist”. A supporter of the atomic theory, he attempted to combine Aristotle’s physics with Democritus‘ philosophy.

Athens and Alexandria were the two major cities where Strato lived and worked. In Alexandria he befriended Ptolemy II Philadelphus the Pharaoh of Ptolemaic Egypt and served as his teacher and mentor. It is not unlikely that Strato worked in the Museum of Alexandria, meeting and working alongside highly prestigious scientists. It was presumably in Athens where he first came into contact with Aristotle’s philosophy through Theophrastus and joined the Lyceum as a scholar.

As a philosopher, Strato dealt with the component of philosophy now known as physics, aiming to interpret the natural world and the metaphysical concepts by logic and mathematical laws. He wrote extensive treatises on physiology, zoology, cosmology, logic, ethics, psychology and natural history. Strato taught that the natural world was bound by laws which governed the way it functioned. According to this teaching Strato accepted that the intellect is a biological phenomenon, which modern medicine has indeed established through the actions of the brain nuclei, the neural tracts and the neurotransmitters. He viewed the intellect as an action of the mind inasmuch as smell and vision are actions of the nose and the eyes respectively while asserted that the soul of man is a moving force consisting of logical and illogical components. He elaborated that the intellectual process is a movement and is the force which moves the soul to execute its functions. Behind every move that drives the soul there is a cause. The seat of the soul is the brain and the sensory organs “windows” of the soul to the physical world.

Strato is considered as the representative philosopher of the theory of “materialism”. He postulated on the void theory, according to which all substances are composed of void. This would explain their weight difference as Strato attributed them to differences in the extent of the void. The presence of void within all substances would further explain why one substance can penetrate an other. He employed the use of the experimental method in his research to reach his deductions. He studied the motion of solid objects, researched inertia and proved by the experimental method that bodies during free fall exhibit acceleration. Furthermore, he discovered the nature of sound and asserted that the sound’s pitch is due to the frequency of the sound. Strato researched psychology, sleep and the function of dreams.

After serving 18 years as headmaster of the Lyceum, Strato passed away and was succeeded by Lycon, one of his students. It is most reasonable to acknowledge that had at least some books of Strato’s literary corpus survived, his position in history as a major Peripatetic philosopher would have been more righteous.

Bibliography:

1. Γεωργακόπουλος, Κωνσταντίνος. 1995. Ἀρχαῖοι Ἕλληνες Θετικοὶ Ἐπιστήμονες. Ἐκδόσεις Γεωργιάδης. Β’ Ἔκδοσις. Ἀθῆναι.
2. Straton o Lamsakenos. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Ioannis Passas, Athens, 1946.
3. Gottschalk, H.B., (2020). Strato of Lampsacus.Encyclopaedia.com. Available at: https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy-biographies/strato-lampsacus. Retrieved: July 5, 2020.

Polykleitos

Sculptor (5^th century BC)

The greatest sculptor of antiquity following Pheidias and Praxiteles, active during the 5^th century BC when Athens and the whole Hellenic world experienced the golden age. He was from the city of Argos, where he had based his sculpture workshop. A favourite of the Romans, Polykleitos was hailed as a master of his craftsmanship and the man who perfected Pheidias’ art of sculpture. His name not coincidentally means “vey glorious”.

Polykleitos was a student of Pheidias and roughly 17 years younger than him. He had achieved similar fame as his teacher in his hometown for creating the frieze and marbles of the Heraion, a temple dedicated to goddess Hera. The frieze depicted the birth of Zeus, the Titanomachy and events from the Trojan War. Upon becoming a respected sculptor in all of Greece he set workshops throughout different cities and worked by commissions. He studied next to prestigious sculptors Agelas and Myron and had met and befriended Socrates and his students while in Athens.

With a few exceptions, almost all of Polykleitos’ sculptures were made of bronze. He was known as the greatest bronze sculptor of his time with his specialty being depicting young male athletes. Rather than placing emphasis on vividness of emotional expression, Polykleitos decided to perfect the symmetry and the beauty of the human body. Nowhere is this more evident than in his sculpture Doryphoros estimated to have been created in 450 BC. It depicts a young man standing on his right leg, holding a spear on his left. This statue was the most copied statue in antiquity by the Romans and was referred to as Kanon, the prototype or standard on which’s symmetry and beauty all future sculptures would be based on as Galen had pointed out that Doryphoros‘ beauty’s lies in its proportions of mathematical accuracy. Marble copies of it exist today, the most famous one being exhibited in the Museum of Naples.

As none of Polykleitos’ original bronze statues survive today, ancient writers commemorate many of his works in their writings, among them Pliny. Some of his most important works were Diadoumenos estimated to have been sculptured around 420 BC. Its marble replica in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens depicts a young athlete tying a headband around his forehead. It exhibits all the virtues that Doryphoros conveys. The statue of Hera in the the temple of Hera of Argos was the counterpart of Pheideias’ giant statue of Zeus in Olympia. This 8 meter tall statue was the only one of Polykleitos’ statues not made of bronze but instead of golden ivory. The acclaimed geographer and historian Strabo considered the statue of Hera superior in beauty to Pheideias’ statues of Zeus and Athena in Olympia and the Parthenon respectively. Similarly the statue of the Wounded Amazon was considered as the best statue that depicted an Amazon in the entire world. The statue, which was situated in the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, was awarded the first prize in Ephesus with Pheidias placing second.

Cyniscus was one of the statues that embodied Polykleitos’ expertise in crafting statues of athletes. So were the statues of famed Olympian athletes Aristion, Thersilochus, Antipatros, Xenocles and Pythocles, all of which were found in Olympia. Polykleitos sculpted athletes in various positions such as the Apoxyomenos, a young athlete cleaning himself from the dust of the Pankration, and the Astragalizontes, a pair of youths playing a game with dice. Apart from athletes, the Divine was a big part of Polykleitos’ inspiration. He sculpted the statue of Heracles Hegetor (Hercules the Leader), Heracles Hydroctonus (Hercules killing the Hydra) and the marble complex featuring Apollo, Artemis and Leto in the temple of Artemis Orthia.

When Greece became occupied by the Romans, the Greek statues were seen with immense enthusiasm by the Roman aristocracy. They were collected and exhibited in their premises while multiple copies were created and sold. Polykleitos’ name was thus very common among wealthy Roman citizens; it was said that while he may not have succeeded in portraying the humans with the magnificence of the Gods as Pheidias had done, Polykleitos achieved the perfection of the human body and made it more beautiful than it is in reality.

Bibliography:

1. Theophanides, B.D. Polykleitos. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Ioannis Passas, Athens, 1946.
2. Harris, B., Zucker, S., Polykleitos, Doryphosors (Spear-Bearer). Khan Academy. Accessed on June 10^th, 2020. Available at: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/ancient-mediterranean-ap/greece-etruria-rome/a/polykleitos-doryphoros-spear-bearer
3. Συγγραφικὴ ὁμὰς τῆς Ἀργολικῆς Ἀρχειακῆς Βιβλιοθήκης. 2009. Πολύκλειτος. Ἀργολικὴ Ἀρχειακὴ Βιβλιοθήκη Ἱστορίας καὶ Πολιτισμοῦ. Argolikivivliothiki.gr.

Speusippus

Philosopher, Mathematician, Biologist, Scholar (407 BC – 339 BC)

Speusippus was Plato‘s nephew, who succeeded him as headmaster of the Academy. A Platonic philosopher with strong inclination to Pythagoreanism, Speusippus was primarily involved with philosophic arithmology as well as zoology and botany. As all of his works have been lost, it is difficult to draw an understanding of Speusippus’ philosophic thought and his work is known to us through the works of other philosophers.

Speusippus was the son of Plato’s sister Potone. He was educated from a young age by Plato himself who, in spite of seeing flaws in his character, chose him as his successor to his Academy in 348 BC. Speusippus was at his core a Platonic philosopher. He taught that one must possess a collective understanding of the whole in order to gain knowledge on a certain subject and that the general ontologic knowledge of the universe is a prerequisite to understanding reality. He believed in the immortality of man’s soul, that itself had three parts, the epithymitikon (instincts and desires), the thymoides (emotions) and the logistikon (reason) and that man must live in accordance to nature (κατά φύσιν ζῆν) in order to achieve eudaemony. In turn, eudaemony, the true form of happiness is mediated through the practice of the four virtues: sophrosyne, valour, prudence and justice. These theses are elaborated in his book Homoia (Same Things), which does not survive today albeit only in the works of Athenaeus. In the same book he devises a classification of animals and includes detailed descriptions of different animal species.

The theory of “scientific sense” and “scientific logos” were postulated by Speusippus, according to which the senses, if guided by the scientific method can give us a false perception of reality as they hide the essence of the sensible objects. On the contrary, the noetic or intellectual objects or beings can only be perceived by the scientific logos. This second method is what can give man a clear perception of the reality of the intellectual beings.

Speusippus continued Plato’s research on mathematics, focusing more on the philosophic and metaphysical nature of numbers similarly to the Pythagoreans, a field called philosophic arithmolgy. This sparked great controversy from Aristotle and his disciples as evident from Aristotle‘s texts. Furthermore, Speusippus was involved with the study of geometry, in particular on triangles and pyramids. His innovations on the field, however, are lost.

Speusippus died in 339 BC and his seat as headmaster of the Academy was passed to Xenocrates. He suffered from rheumatism during his older years, which nonetheless did not restrain him from practicing his academic duties. When Diogenes the Cynic once saw Speusippus being carried on a litter due to his inability to walk, he deplored him saying that it is not worth living in such a condition. Speusippus replied saying “Man, Diogenes, does not live by his legs but by his mind”.

Bibliography:

1. Pleures, Konstantinos. 2014. Greek Philosophers. Hilektron Publications. Athens. pp. 119-120
2. Georgoulis, K.D. Speusippus. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Ioannis Passas, Athens, 1946.
3. Γεωργακόπουλος, Κωνσταντίνος. 1995. Ἀρχαῖοι Ἕλληνες Θετικοὶ Ἐπιστήμονες. Ἐκδόσεις Γεωργιάδης. Β’ Ἔκδοσις. Ἀθῆναι.

Arrian

Philosopher, Historian, Geographer, Writer, General, Statesman (c.95 – c.180)

Flavius Arrianus was one of the greatest Greek polymaths of the Roman era who is widely known today as the author of Anabasis, the most important historical work documenting the life and work of Alexander the Great as well as his conquest of Asia. Referred to as the “New Xenophon”, Arrianus has been praised for his immensely valuable corpus as well as for his virtuous skills as a statesman of the Roman Empire.

He was from Asia Minor, specifically from Bithynia. He began his studies in philosophy next to his tutor and future mentor Epictetus in Nicopolis, before arriving and settling in Athens, where he completed his studies in philosophy and rhetoric. At the time, Athens was ruled by the Roman Emperor Hadrian, who met Arrian while in Athens and befriended him. In admiration for his polymathy and virtue, Hadrian sent Arrian to Rome, where he was granted a Roman citizenship and became a member of the royal family, earning the title Flavius. Arrian would eventually go on to have a very prestigious political career in the Roman Empire, becoming legatus of Cappadocia, the first time in history for a Greek to be appointed to such a rank, later consul of Rome and finally serving as a military commander of the Roman army. In 137 Arrian was appointed archon of Athens and upon his retirement returned to his home city where he served as a hierophant of the Goddess Demeter.

Arrian is the author of multiple books, whose topics span fields including philosophy, history, geography and military. He is the author of Discourses of Epictetus, a book consisting of 8 tomes on the Stoic philosophy of his mentor Epictetus. The book achieved tremendous success throughout history and was even read by the noble Roman class, particularly by Marcus Aurelius, a contemporary of Arrian and himself a Stoic philosopher. Just as Epictetus had influenced Arrian as a philosophy, Xenophon was his spiritual teacher and guide as a historian. This is reflected by the fact that his magnum opus is named after Xenophon’s Anabasis of Cyrus. Arrian’s Anabasis of Alexander is undoubtedly his greatest work to which he owes his prominence as a historian, spanning 7 tomes, recounting Alexander’s campaign and conquest of Asia, his battles, his life, his character as well as the events that took place around him. He described Alexander as a “God’s gift” and his figure unparalleled, proving his admiration for the works of great men, which he wanted to write and pass down to history so that they become immortal.

Arrian wrote multiple historical books, some of them being Ta Met’Alexandron which is about the Diadochi or Alexander’s successors, Bythiniaka, a book on the history of his homeland Bythinia and Parthica, a history of Parthia. His books on geography Indika and Periplous of the Euxine Sea provide a unique insight not only on the geography of India and the Black Sea respectively but in addition on the voyage of Nearchus, Alexander’s chief admiral on the Indian Ocean and the exploration of the shores of India and the nearby countries of the Persian Empire. Being an experienced military commander of the Roman army, Arrian wrote books on military topics, most notably the books Techne Taktikai, Kynegetikon and Ektaxis kat’Alanon. These books testify Arrian’s strong military skills and his ability to critically assess military matters. Arrian was furthermore a writer of biographies, although few of them survive.

It should not come to anyone as a surprise that to a very large extent almost all of Arrian’s corpus has survived. This is attributed to the fact that most of his treatises have been used throughout history as textbooks in schools and universities in the west and continue to be used to this day. He has been praised by many, including Pliny, Emperors Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius, by Lucian and Photios for his simple yet eloquent language, his precision in his descriptions and facts, for his critical research of original source material and for his respect to truth. While he has been named the “New Xenophon” this may be an overstatement as Arrian was never as objective as Xenophon was, referring in certain parts of his writings to divine signs, monsters and even divinations. Nevertheless, his brilliance as a writer and commander is well established as proven by his role in the Roman Empire. History as righteously hailed him as one of the greatest and most erudite historians of all time.

Bibliography:

1. A.D.N. Arrianos. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I, Athens: 1946. Print.
2. M. L. Chaumont, “ARRIAN,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, II/5, pp. 523-524, available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arrian-greek-historian (accessed on 30 December 2012).
3. Μπούρας, Ναστούλης, Σακελλαρίου. 1998. Αρριανού Αλεξάνδρου Ανάβαση.Οργανισμός Εκδόσεως Διδακτικών Βιβλίων. Αθήνα.

Polygnotus

Painter (5^th century BC)

Polygnotus was one of the most renowned painters of Classical Greece, whose works adorned some of the most sacred temples of the Hellenic world, notably at Delphi and the Acropolis of Athens. He was the son of Aglaophon, who himself was a distinguished painter. Originally from the small island of Thasos, Polygnotus settled in Athens and befriended Cimon, son of Miltiades. Polygnotus painted the frescoes in the Stoa Poikile and the Theseum. As a result of his excellent artistry, he was granted an Athenian citizenship and became one of the most successful and respected painters in the history of Athens.

Polygnotus painted two paintings in the Temple of Athena Areia in Plataeae, the first depicting the death of the suitors of Penelope by Odysseus and the second depicting Adrastus’ attack against Thebes. Both served as an allegory to the destruction of Plataeae by the Persians, the defeat of the Persians and the re-establishment of Plataeae. The Lesche of the Cnidians (the club or meeting place of the peoples of Cnidus) was one of Polygnotus’ most remarkable masterpieces. It was an enormous fresco which portrayed scenes from the fall of Troy, the departure of the Achaeans from Troy as well as scenes from Homer’s Odyssey. As mentioned by Lucian, Plutarch and Pausanias, the painting was located in Delphi. Pliny also accounts a painting attributed to Polygnotus in Thespiae, which depicted the punishment of Salmoneus in Hades. Unfortunately, non of the paintings survive today.

Athens was the city Polygnotus was mostly associated with. He painted the fall of Troy in the Stoa Poikile in the ancient agora of the city with similar themes depicted in the Lesche of the Cnidians. In the Theseum, otherwise known as the temple of Hephaestus, Polygnotus painted the battle of Athenians with the Amazons and the Battle of the Lapiths with the Centaurs, two themes which play a crucial role as philosophical tools in the Greek Meditation (‘Ελληνικός Διαλογισμός). In the Anakeion Temple close to the Acropolis, Polygnotus, together with Mikon painted the marriages of the Dioscouri. Polygnotus’ works could not have been absent from the Acropolis itself, the most sacred monument in Athens. Next to the Propylaea (the gateway of Acropolis), was the Pinacotheke , the art gallery, where paintings of Polygnotus and Aglaophon were stored and exhibited.

Widely regarded as a pioneer of art, Polygnotus was admired as an excellent ethograph (άριστος ήθογράφος) because of his ability to illustrate the ethos of the characters he depicted in his paintings using their unique facial expressions, gestures and body movement, all of which enlightened their inner mood. He is said to have painted using only four colours and their derivatives, namely black, white, yellow and red. The influence of Homer, the eternal Teacher of all the Greeks, is strongly visible in Polygnotus’ paintings. Scenes from the Iliad such as the atrocities of the Achaeans during the desruction of Troy, the struggles of the heroes Achilleus and Diomedes, scenes from the Odyssey, such as Odysseus’ descent to Hades, the death of Penelope’s suitors by Odysseus and the meeting of Nausicaa and Odysseus in the land of the Phaeaces are all testaments of the importance Homer occupied in the arts as well as how spiritually cultivated Polygnotus was.

Sadly, we will never be able to admire Polygnotus’ paintings with our own eyes, as none of his works have survived. It is thanks to Pausanias and a handful of other historians who managed to write descriptions of the paintings they once saw and pass them on to the next generations. Reading these descriptions, one can only imagine how magnificent art in classical Greece could have been, perhaps transcending all that the mortal eye has even seen.

Bibliography:

1. Theophaneidis, Vasilios D. Polygnotos. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Encyclopaedia of the Sun Publications. Athens, 2013. Print.
2. Αρχαιογνώμων. 4 Μαΐου, 2015. Οι Πίνακες του Πολυγνώτου. Ellinondiktyo.blogspot.com. Web.

Ptolemy I Soter

General, Diadochos of Alexander the Great, Pharaoh of Egypt (c.367 BC – 282 BC)

Ptolemy was one of Alexander the Great’s most trusted generals and personal friends. He was the son of Lagos of Macedon, hence also being known as Ptolemy of Lagos. Others have claimed he was the illegitimate of son of king Philip of Macedon and therefore brother of Alexander. Following Alexander’s death, Ptolemy was one of Alexander’s Successors, the so called Diadochi, who became Pharaoh of Egypt and founded the Ptolemaic Dynasty, which ruled over Egypt for hundreds of years until its conquest by the Romans. His reign, which lasted a total of 23 years, was characterized by an unprecedented cutural and spiritual development of Egypt and the surrounding countries.

Serving as an Alexandrian General from the beginning of the campaign, Ptolemy partook in every single battle. He played a decisive role in the conquest of Sogdiana, fought against the satrap of Bactria Bessus, who was responsible for the assassination of Darius, and the Indian king Porus as well as fended off the Cossaei and the Oxydarks. His name Soter, meaning Saviour, is said to have been given to him during a battle with the latter, when Ptolemy rescued a severely wounded Alexander. Another possibility is when he helped the Rhodians during the siege of Demetrius.

As one of the Successors of Alexander the Great, Ptolemy was given Egypt to rule over, which he eventually expanded to include Syria and Cyrenaica. He moved the capitol to Alexandria and he heavily fortified with a powerful army of mercenaries and a navy. Alexandria became a significant commercial center of the Mediterranean, which Ptolemy ensured to decorate with palaces and public buildings of exceptional beauty, including the construction of the Lighthouse of Alexandria, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Numerous Greek cities were built while Greek became the official language spoken even by the peasants. Ptolemy’s respect for the religion of the Egyptian priests allowed them not only to rebuild their temples destroyed by the Persians, but also to practice it freely.

Thanks to Ptolemy Egypt was transformed into a Greek province. It flourished to such an extent that at that time, Egypt held the reins of the most culturally and inteletually advanced center in the world. He introduced the worship of Zeus Serapis “the healer” to Egypt by transferring the statue of Zeus Serapis from Sinope. He disseminated the Greek civilization to all of Egypt, cultivating the Greek letters and sciences, he himself devoting his time to writing books. Most importantly, Ptolemy constructed the first museum and the first library of Alexandria, which housed thousands of manuscripts of literature, science and theology from all over the world, making it the world’s first global archieve of knowledge. Ptolemy died in -282 and was succeeded by his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus.

Bibliography:

1. Plevris, Konstantinos. The King Alexander. Hilektron publications. Athens: 2015. Print.
2. Ptolemy I Soter. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas I. Athens: 1946. Print.
3. Wasson, Donald L. “Ptolemy I.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia, 03 Feb 2012. Web. 23 Dec 2019.