Constantine XI Palaiologos

Last Byzantine Emperor (1405 – 1453)

Constantine Palaiologos, the immortal Marble King, was born in 1405, at a time when the Byzantine Empire was at its final years. Having suffered from Iconoclasms, 2 bloody Crusades, the Latin invasion and countless raids by neighbouring clans, the Byzantine Empire had taken severe losses on its population, lands and its glory.

Before his time as an emperor, Constantine had liberated Peloponnesus from Frankian rule, together with his army and established a powerful operations center. He had then continued north and liberated parts of Steraia Hellada and Thessaly. His plans to continue and liberate northern parts of his empire, however, failed and he retreated back to Peloponnesus.

When John Palaiologos died childless in 1448, his brother Constantine succeeded him as Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. The coronation took place in Constantine’s hometown, the holy city of Mystras. He was the first and only Byzantine Emperor to be crowned outside of Constantinople. As soon as Constantine was crowned emperor, he was faced with a massive undertaking. With almost nothing left but Peloponnesus and a small part of Eastern Thrace, the empire was on the brink of collapse. His army was very small and his resources scarce. But the greatest challenge with which he was tasked was the enormous army of the Ottoman Empire that was rapidly approaching Constantinople, lead by Mehmed the Conqueror.

As emperor, he put all his efforts to keep the empire alive. His politics were different from those of his brother’s. John sought help from the West by participating in the Council of Ferrara-Florence. His attempts to reunite the Byzantine and Latin churches, however, failed. Constantine, on the other hand, was against the Latins, having been sworn enemies of the Byzantine Empire. His main concern was to defend Constantinople, otherwise, it would mean the end of a 1000 year old empire. When he arrived at Constantinople, he started organizing the army and strengthening the defenses of the city. He received help only from the Republic of Genoa, led by Giovanni Giustiniani.

The siege lasted for many days with huge casualties from the Ottoman army. Nevertheless, with an army of just 8500 against an army of 180.000, massive cannons and a fleet of 150 ships, it was only a matter of time before the city’s walls could hold much longer. Weakened, but determined, Constantine and his men showed unlimited courage and continued to defend the city with all their might. One day before the Fall, Constantine made his final speech, in which he addressed all his people in an effort to increase their spirit, saying among others that there were 4 reasons that they should prefer death over life: first for their faith, second for their homeland, third for their king and Jesus Christ and fourth for their families and friends. During the closure of his speech, with tears in his eyes, he prompted his men to fight till the death for Jesus Christ and their homeland.

On May 29, 1453, the Ottoman Turks breach the walls of the City and vast amounts of soldiers quickly surround Constantine and his faithful men. After having fought fiercely with a broken sword, Constantine falls like a lion beside his fellow men. It was the end of the Byzantine Empire, after nearly 1000 years of existence.

Legend has it that moments before his death, an angel appeared and took Constantine off his horse and into a cave, where he transformed him into marble. To this day, the Marble King awaits in his cave, the day that he will rise like the Phoenix to reclaim Constantinople and re-establish the Byzantine Empire, chasing the Turks faraway to the Red Apple Tree.

Bibliography

1. “Palaiologos, Konstantinos XI”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
2. TakJar. ΝΕΤ Η μήχανη του Χρόνου S02E16 Η Άλωση της ΠΟΛΗΣ. YouTube. February 2, 2012. Web. November 27, 2015.

Herophilus

Physician (335 BC – 255 BC)

He was born in Chalcedon. He flourished in Alexandria, where he quickly became leader of the Medical School of Alexandria. Herophilus became well known for being one of the first anatomists, an excellent physiologist and pathologist. He was also a skilled pharmacologist, obstetrician, gynecologist and surgeon.

Herophilus was an important promoter of anatomy. He recognized the brain as the “seat of intellect” and emotions. He studied the ventricles of the brain, named the meninges of the brain and traced the junction where the sinuses of the dura matter, the toughest of the meninges, meet. It is named torcular Herophili in his honour to this day. He was the first to distinguish the nerves between motor and sensory and identify their function to conduct impulses. He is credited with describing the optic, oculomotor, the motor branch of the trigeminal, facial, vestibulocochlear and hypoglossal nerves.

Herophilus extensively studied the liver, the pancreas, the eye, including all its structures, the salivary glands and the genital system of both the male and the female. He named the duodenum and the prostate gland. He recognized that the spermatozoa were produced in the testis, although their existence was already known by Plato. He is also credited as being the first to show a direct relation of the pulse with the heart and measure it successfully using a water clock (depicted in the picture above). In addition, Herophilus sought to correct certain misconceptions of medicine that were widely prevalent at the time, such as that arteries carried blood instead of spirit and that the heart had 2 atria and 2 ventricles instead of 3 ventricles.

In the midst of an era where dissections were considered taboo, Herophilus conducted systematic dissections, often done in public, predating Andrea Vesalius for more than a thousand years. Unfortunately, Herophilus was accused of conducting dissections on living people and was named a “butcher”. All the works which he left behind were burnt during the destruction of the Library of Alexandria.

Nevertheless, his knowledge was passed down the generations and today he is recognized for his achievements and is justly named the Father of Anatomy. His aphorism “Wisdom is indemonstrable, art uncertain, strength powerless, wealth useless and speech impotent if health be absent” has guided the medical profession throughout the ages.

Bibliography

1. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Herophilus” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 2 November. 2015.
2. Tziropoulou Eustathiou, Anna. Archigenethlos Helliniki Glossa. Athens: Georgiades, 2011. Print.
3. Tziropoulou Eustathiou, Anna. O en tei Lexei Logos. Athens: Georgiades, 2011. Print.

Heron of Alexandria

Mathematician, Physicist, Engineer, Inventor, Writer (c. 10 – c. 70)

Heron of Alexandria was an innovative engineer and a brilliant mathematician and physicist. Along with Apollonius of Perga, Aristarchus, Conon, Hipparchus, Ctesebius, Philon of Byzantium and many others, he was part of a group of prominent scientists who worked and flourished in the Museum in the Library of Alexandria, the most illustrious center of arts and sciences at its time. Together with the two latter, Heron’s inventions on automatons paved the way to the development of today’s automatic machines.

Among Heron’s greatest inventions recorded by history are the following:

• The dioptra were instruments built for the precise measurement of distances between two celestial or terrestrial bodies. According to Heron himself, it was possible using these instruments to chart islands and seas, in astronomy to calculate the distances between stars and predict eclipses.
• The nautical hodometre was an intricate device made of cogs and gears that could measure sea distances.
• The pantograph, an instrument designed for copying drawings and figures. The machine included a mechanism by which the operator could enlarge or reduce the size of the copy.
• The windpowered hydraulis demonstrated the world’s very first substantial use of wind powering a machine. It was a musical instrument that utilized air to function.
• The automatic servant was a humanoid robot which held a jug of wine in her right hand. When a visitor placed a cup on her left palm, she automatically poured wine. Afterwards, she poured water into the cup mixing it when desired.
• A device which permitted the automatic opening of the temple gates after sacrifice on its altar.
• A hydraulic automaton depicting Hercules launching an arrow against a dragon. When the viewer lifted the apple in the middle of the platform, Hercules’ hand was released and the arrow was launched at the dragon, which made it hiss giving a sense of death. It functioned by utilizing air and pressure.
• Heron’s “Philosopher stone” was an invention that could “change” one liquid, for example water, to another, such as wine. It consisted of two vessels which were connected by a small tube at the bottom and reached at their top. When water was poured in the first one, it caused the air to move to the second vessel and push out an equal amount of wine from the second one.
• Heron’s aeolosphere was the precursor of the steam engine. It consisted of a sphere with two curved nozzles, resting on a boiler. When water was boiled, the heat that was produced entered the sphere, then came out of the nozzles and forced te sphere into rotation. The aeolosphere is considered Heron’s most well-known invention.
• Numerous other inventions such as the sound alarm, a sound device that was activated by the opening of a door which it protected, the hovering sphere, the automatic cup with the counterweight, the magic fountain, which recycled water and ostensibly defied the hydrostatic principles, the magic horse of Heron, the self-controlled water boiler, the magic dance, the automatic tripods of Hephaestus. Heron’s static automatic theater was the “cinema” of the Ancient Greeks. Other inventions include elevating machines of remarkable technology, most notably the cranes for large load, the one-mast crane, the winches etc.

Heron was the DaVinci of antiquity, the Copperfield of machines. His works were reproduced by countless engineers and inventors throughout the ages, leading to today’s technological era. His work was admired so much by the Romans and the Arabs that nearly his entire work as been saved and translated. History has justly placed Heron of Alexandria among the world’s greatest, most cutting-edge engineers that walked this Earth.

Bibliography

1. Ayfantis, Georgios. Anthropos & Epistimi – Enimerosis: Prehistory and History of Man, Science & Civilization. Athens: Hellinikon Selas, 2009. Print.
2. “Heron Alexandreus”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
3. Kotsanas, Kostas. Ancient Greek Technology: The Inventions of the Ancient Greeks.  Pyrgos: Kostas Kotsanas, 2013. Print.

Papaflessas

Priest, Statesman, Hero of the Greek War of Independence (1788 – 1825)

Papaflessas was one of the most prominent figures during the Greek War of Independence. He was born as the 28^th and last son of Demetrius Dikaios. He studied under a strict educational system close to very skilled teachers. At a young age, he became a priest and received the name Gregorios Phlessas. Still, people would call him Papaflessas, a name by which he would be written down in history.

Papaflessas was a patriot, something that was evident when he was still a child. He spent some time in Zakynthos, where he was influenced by the French Revolution. He would hear conversations about peoples’ uprising, liberty, freedom and a revolution soon coming to Greece. It was there that he met with Theodoros Kolokotronis, a man whose fame had already spread throughout Greece. Later, he travelled to Constantinople to become archbishop. He was one step from becoming Patriarch of Constantinople, but fate had different intentions for him. Instead, Papaflessas came to contact with the Philiki Hetaireia (Society of Friends) and became a member. Soon after, he undertook an active role in recruiting many new members to the sacred war of freedom. He preached, he encouraged, he influenced, he persuaded. He even managed to gather a large sum of money, which he invested in the Society of Friends for the war.

During the first stages of the war, Papaflessas and Alexander Hypselantes agreed that Papaflessas would travel to Morea to start a conflict while Hypselantes’ forces would distract the Turkish forces at Wallachia. Henceforth, the Greek War of Independence had begun. He participated in a number of important battles, most notably the liberation of Kalamata and the Battle of Dervenakia alongside Theodoros Kolokotronis, Niketas Stamatelopoulos, Demetrius Hypselantes and many others. The Battle of Dervenakia proved to be one of the most successful battles in the chronicles of the Greek War of Independence. The Greek forces, even though they were outnumbered by 10.000 still managed to defeat the Turkish forces and win the battle decisively.

Even though the Greek War of Independence was at its progress, Papaflessas’ life was coming to an end. Just before the battle of Maniaki, he received a letter from his brother Niketas convincing him to change his tactics. Papaflessas wrote to him back: “Niketa, I received your letter and as a reply I tell you that […] if I swore to spill my blood in need of my homeland, this is the time. I wish in God that Ibrahim’s first shot take my head, because I am writing to you to come faster and you are writing me hogwash. Niketa, this is my first and last letter; keep it and read it time to time to remember me and to cry”. On March 20^th, 1825, Papaflessas falls alongside his faithful men, after having fought like a lion. During the end of the battle, Ibrahim ordered his men to find and retrieve Papaflessas’ body. They tied his body on a tree and ordered his servants to wash his face. He gazed at him for a few seconds and kissed his face as an act of acknowledgement of his bravery and courage.

To this day, Papaflessas’ fortress at Maniaki still exists. Every spring during March, the hill sprouts beautiful flowers from the soil on which Papaflessas spilt his blood as a reminiscent of his Leonidean battle.

Bibliography

1. Barbis, Kostas. Jackals and Hyenas of the Greek Politics. Thessaloniki: Kadmos, 2012. Print.
2. “Papaflessas”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
3. ”Παπαφλέσσας. Ο αρχιμανδρίτης που αγάπησε τις γυναίκες, το ποτό και την επανάσταση”. mixanitouxronou.gr. 19 May 2014. Web. 18 Dec. 2015.

Homer

Epic Poet (c. 3000 BC)

The Greek Anthology writes that Homer is “the ageless mouth of the world entire”. He speaks to the reader through his works, the Iliad and the Odyssey, to imbue them with a sense of magic and to invite them to delve into the world of Achilles and Odysseus. A world of terrifying cyclopes, seducing sirens and lotus-eaters. The world of the beautiful Helen of Troy and the fair Nausicaa; where Gods battle alongside humans and get injured and where ships are piloted not by human arms, but through the mind.

Homer’s elusive identity led many researchers to the so-called Homeric problems. Did Homer really exist and if so, were there more than one person hidden behind his name? What does his name mean, where was he born and when did he live? Was Homer blind? Were his poems disseminated verbally or were they written down? Where is the Homeric Ithaca and did Odysseus travel to the Atlantic?

The answer to the first question is affirmative. Homer did exist. His name is mentioned by numerous Ancient Greeks in their works. Plato writes that Homer has taught all of Greece, Heraclitus states that he is the wisest of them all while Euripides writes for him that he is the best and most divine of the poets. Pindar calls him the King of Poets. Aristophanes says that Homer taught virtues while Aeschylus confesses that his own poems are nothing but dust compared to those of Homer. Seven cities claim Homer’s birthplace: Smyrna, Chios, Colophon, Ithaca, Pylos, Argus and Athens. The most probable of these are Ithaca, Pylos or Argus, with Asia Minor being excluded because Homer lived before Asia Minor was colonized by the Greeks. This is evident from the fact that he does not mention any Greek city or activities of the Greeks there, aside from Troy. In his epics, many of the Ancient Greek cities are called with different, more ancient names, for example Delphi are called Pytho, Chaeronea is called Arne, Peloponnesus is called Argus and the river Nile in called Aegyptus. Most importantly, he ignores the destruction of the Minoan civilization, which conventional history places at 1620 BC and mentions 100 thriving Cretan cities, which would have been destroyed after the earthquake eruption. Hence, we can say that Homer lived before 1620 BC. The fact that he uses many words which had become obsolete by the 9^th century also adds in favour to this.

Homer’s descent has long been a subject of study. According to Suda, one of the oldest surviving encyclopaedias, Homer is the son of Telemachus and Polycaste. There are numerous indications throughout the Odyssey that hint this, most notably the scene where Telemachus is bathed by Polycaste and which were intentionally put by the author. In addition, there exist a legend according to which Hadrian once went to the Oracle of Delphi to ask who was Homer, to which Pythia replied that he was the son of Telemachus and Polycaste. Homer is therefore the grandson of Odysseus. Odysseus wrote down his experiences during the battle of Troy and his journey home and passed this information to Homer through his son Telemachus. Homer, being an aoidos, composed the Iliad and the Odyssey in perfect dactylic hexameter and would travel to various cities singing excerpts of his works during celebrations. In the end, he would give them a copy of that excerpt. Homer travelled to many parts of Greece, teaching his works thus earning the title of teacher. Through his works, he managed to give all the Greek population a common foreground in education. Eventually, many manuscripts were lost and the excerpts existed separately from each other, until Onomacritus collected all of the excerpts and published them collectively as the Iliad and the Odyssey, during the 6^th century BC by order of Peisistratus.

Homer was not blind. Even though Herodotus specifically states it in his writings, it is practically impossible for a blind man to write down everything that is written in both the Iliad and the Odyssey with such fine and scientific detail. The verbs he uses, the colours, the movements and the scenes which he describes are all so finely portrayed in each and every shade that leaves even the most observant person in awe. Homer saw as much as all the others did not.

One of the major subjects of study is whether Odysseus travelled to the Atlantic or just in the Mediterranean during these 10 years. This has been meticulously studied by several researchers but the one who stands out is Henriette Mertz, an attorney, code-breaker and researcher who in her book “The Wine Dark Sea” attempts to prove the fact that the Iliad and the Odyssey were not fictions of Homer, but actual events and that Odysseus crossed the Atlantic ocean and travelled to the Americas. Mertz conducted numerous voyages throughout the Americas and visited herself every location that she believed Odysseus did, having the Odyssey as a guide, in much the same way as Heinrich Schliemann had the Iliad when he discovered the ruins of Troy, which was believed to be merely imaginary prior to its discovery. There, she found thousands of artefacts with Greek letters, as well as pottery with Greek decorations. Moreover, she did research based on the astrological observations described in the epics. Mertz deduced that Odysseus had travelled to the Americas by means of the Gulf Stream as part of a mission. It is known from the Ancient Greek manuscripts that the Greeks had already been to the Americas and had founded colonies, most notably the Argonauts, who are mentioned in the Odyssey. For her work, Mertz was awarded by the Government of Greece.

The Homeric Ithaca is not the modern Ithaca. Its name is symbolic, and means to go and to come back (Ἰθάκη = ἴθι +ἄγε). For every individual, Ithaca is something different. Odysseus’ Ithaca was where he had begun and where he had to return so that he did not feel nostalgia anymore. The Homeric Ithaca most likely corresponds to today’s Cephalonia for numerous reasons, one of them being because in the Trojan War Odysseus leads the Cephallenians. Other equally probable candidates for Odysseus’ Ithaca are Leucas and Corfu.

The Iliad and the Odyssey were not disseminated verbally but written. They were written with Pelasgian alphabet in a time when the Greek language had reached perfection. The Homeric language contained therapeutic capacities with Homer’s and Hesiod’s works being used in antiquity to treat psychiatric disorders as told by Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Only recently did modern science come to verify what Homer and the Ancient Greeks already knew. The American Journal of Physiology published a research where they established the fact that reciting Homer has positive effects on the heart and the breathing by synchronizing both and helping the body find its “inner rhythm”. They concluded that they can be used to alleviate cardiac diseases. In addition, they increase the intellect and the cognitive function of students as well as used to treat dyslexia.

Homer is regarded as the eternal educator of all Greece. From antiquity, Homeric Studies comprised an important part in one’s education. Aristotle taught Alexander the Iliad and the Odyssey and it is said that Alexander slept with the Iliad under his pillow. He considered Achilles his idol and had succeeded in learning by heart numerous lines from it. Pythagoras credits Homer as his first teacher. Pythagorean arithmosophy can be traced within the works of Iliad and the Odyssey, thousands of years before Pythagoras’ birth. The works of Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Bacchylides and Orpheus occupy a very special place in the Greek literature. Greeks from a very early age learned by heart excerpts from their works. The messages, the ideas and the symbolisms all passed down to their memories and were engraved in their mind. When they became men this information was activated by their soul and immediately they would enter the world of nous (νοῦς). Nous, that is the mind, would conceive this information and transform it into thought that guided the Greek to meditation (Διαλογισμός). Throughout the ages, the Iliad and the Odyssey have taught all Greek generations, eventually crossing the frontiers of Greece and spreading throughout the entire world, where they are still studied in schools and universities.

The Homeric Epics are not simply mythological stories. They depict actual events, blended with mythological elements which hide powerful symbolism and philosophy behind them. The epics acted as mystic educators that connected the reader, the meditator with the Divine by means of optic presentations in their mind. Homer has been called many things, from teacher to poet of the poets. All spiritual personalities throughout the ages have expressed their remarkable respect to him. Jean-Auguste Dominique Ingres in his painting The Apotheosis of Homer writes: “If Homer is a god, that one honours him among gods; if he is not, that he be regarded as one“.

Bibliography:

1. Altani. Arritoi Logoi Kentauroi, Amazones, Medousa. Athens: Georgiades, 2005. Print.
2. Ayfantis, Georgios. Anthropos & Epistimi – Enimerosis: Prehistory and History of Man, Science & Civilization. Athens: Hellenikon Selas, 2009. Print.
3. Mertz, Henriette. The Wine Dark Sea. Athens: Nea Thesis, 1995. Print.
4. Tziropoulou Eustathiou, Anna. Archigenethlos Helliniki Glossa. Athens: Georgiades, 2011. Print.
5. Tziropoulou Eustathiou, Anna. Homeros Telemachou Odysseides. Athens: Georgiades, 2003. Print.
6. Tziropoulou Eustathiou, Anna. O en tei Lexei Logos. Athens: Georgiades, 2011. Print.

7. ”Ο Όμηρος, η αριστεία στα Μαθηματικά και ο μυστικός αριθμός 3 στην Οδύσσεια και την Ιλιάδα”. mixanitouxronou.gr. 31 Mar. 2016. Web. 12 Dec. 2015.

Yannis Makriyannis

General, Author, Statesman, Hero of the Greek War of Independence (1797-1864)

Yiannis Makriyannis was one of the leading figures during the Greek War of Independence in 1821. As of today, he remains a symbol of ethnic unity and Hellenism hailed for his courage and devotion to the country.

Born to a poor family, Makriyannis quickly joined the Philike Hetairia in 1820 and took place in numerous decisive battles against the Ottoman Empire, leading to the liberation of Greek land.

In 1821 he gathered money and led a series of uprisings in Patra. Later that year he took part in the Battle of Stavros and Peta where the Greek Army won against an army of 5000 Turks. He continued in the siege of Arta alongside Giorgos Karaiskakis, Markos Botsaris and Athanasios Photomaras, where they freed the city from the Turkish yoke. During the civil wars he would refuse to take sides and seek to unite the Greeks against the Turks. He was also one of the most influential people during the Battle of the Kelphts, dismantling Turkish forces.

Following many victorious battles , Makriyannis became Politarch of Athens and contributed to the political restructure of the city. He appointed justice and fought for the establishment of constitution in 1843. Appointed superintendent of Athens, Makriyannis organized the country’s socioeconomic structure. He divided and distributed crops of land and sought for the establishment of pension for the Freedom Fighters of 1821.

Makriyannis is also known for his offer in Hellenic literature, having chronicled the Greek War of Independence in his Memoirs. His work is regarded as a masterpiece of Hellenic literature because of its sophisticated writing and its rich historical and emotional content, being still taught in Greek schools.

As one of the most important fighters of the Greek War of Independence, Makriyannis remains a model of a national hero and visionary not just for Greece but for the world entire. British philosopher Philip Sherrard noted of Makriyannis that such symbols do not just remain national but become universal, because they have the power to excite and enrich the heart and the mind of people.

Bibliography

1. Karamadoukis, Georgios. ”General Makriyannis”. Helleniki Agogi. 18.71. (2003): 23-35. Print.
2. ”Makriyannis, Yannis”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.

Vangelis

Musician (1943)

Undoubtedly one of the most prolific composers of our time, Vangelis Papathanasiou is the pioneer of electronic music and the mind behind some of the most successful scores in motion picture history.

Born in Volos, Vangelis took on music from an early age and without any formal training quickly became one of the most recognizable figures of Greek music during the 60s. Later on, while relocating to Paris and London, Vangelis explored new grounds with electronic music. With the simultaneous use of 6 keyboards, Vangelis was able to broaden his musical idea, tune it with the keyboards and record it all at the same time. His distinguished musical style became an instant success, drawing the attention of renowned filmmakers.

In 1982 Vangelis won the Academy Award for Best Original Score for his work in ”Chariots of Fire”. The musical album peaked the charts of several countries, becoming one of the highest selling albums and introducing Hollywood to a new style of music. He collaborated with Ridley Scott in ”Blade Runner” and again in ”1942: Conquest of Paradise” earning Golden Globe nominations for both. Other soundtracks include Costa Gavras’s Palme d’Or winning ”Missing”, Roger Donaldson’s ”The Bounty” and Oliver Stone’s ”Alexander”.

It is not just Vangelis’s music that distinguishes him from other composers but his approach to music. He supports that music ought to drive the composer in order to have an honest and true result. To achieve this, the composer must work as a channel through which the music passes and changes from its chaotic form to its grounded form. If the composer drives the music, the result will be a product of business and not music.

Since the past decade, Vangelis has been composing music based on mathematical coordinates for NASA’s mission in space, the most recent being the Rosetta mission. He also composed music for the 2000 and 2004 Olympic games respectively.

For his promotion of Hellenism throughout the word, Vangelis Papathanasiou has received numerous accolades and awards, with his music being his biggest honor.

Bibliography

1. Freddy279. Vangelis Papathanasiou Biography (complete). Youtube. 12 Sep. 2012. 22 Nov. 2015.
2. ”Vangelis”. IMDb, n.d. Web. 22 Nov. 2015.

Socrates

Philosopher (470 BC – 399 BC)

Greece is renowned for having given birth to heroes and sages. Socrates was both of them together. Socrates is considered as a landmark in philosophy. Modern history has divided philosophy into pre and post Socratic. Socratic philosophy, and in a broader sense philosophy, has the essence of practising virtue. Through the practice of virtue comes the cleansing of the soul, which is followed by its perfection.

Socrates’ philosophy, unlike most other philosophers at his time, was not based on the surroundings but was centred on man. His philosophy aimed at making man virtuous and to live a good and happy life. For this to be achieved, one should not act contrary to his beliefs. Socrates taught that knowledge came from within, not from the outside world. Through knowing oneself one would live a life with virtues. Socrates did not teach what things were right and wrong to do and did not aim to correct people’s mistakes. Instead, through logic he was able to persuade people to direct their behaviour towards what was best for their spiritual development. His method, which came to be known as the Socratic Method, was the following: He would hide the fact that he knew under a cloak of ignorance and pretend that he did not know. Then, he would discuss with his interlocutor and through questions he would eventually reach the opposite definition which the interlocutor had originally put, thus proving them that their argument was wrong. He rejected democracy because quantity did not determine quality. People were obliged to conform to the opinions of people who knew and not to the opinion of the many. Socrates considered absurd people who did not know, to do something that they did not know, nevertheless to have an opinion about it.

Socrates practised meditation. Plato saves a very important excerpt in his Symposium with Alcibiades narrating about what he witnessed during the battle of Poitidaia. Socrates meditated standing from one sunrise until the next without moving. His fellow soldiers watched with complete awe and respect as the philosopher made contact with the Divine Beings of Light right at the time when the sun’s rays reached the horizon during the sunrise. As his spirit left his body from Earth, Socrates made an aetheric flight around our world. What he saw is described in detail in Plato’s works Phaedon and Symposium. Socrates described Earth’s view from space in much the same way as our astronauts recently did. He described it as being spherical and divided into 12 pieces of skin, covered with different colours. They are the 12 meridians, from which different electromagnetic waves are emitted and give these colours. Moreover, he described how the Earth contains multiple colours, colours that are visible by airplane passengers above the clouds, the white colour of the poles, the blue colour of the seas etc. He was the first to mention the concept of gravity. Socrates also witnessed the Divine Aetheric Fields, a world that is outside of our visual field and is home to higher spiritual entities. This could be a possible explanation for the enigmatic daemon of Socrates. During the next dawn, he returned to Earth. With his journey, he created the bridge that linked humanity with the Divine Beings of Light. He was just 40 years old at the time.

Socrates stood as an example of the person he intended to make others. Unfortunately, the same people he was serving turned against him and ultimately resulted to his unjust trial. He was not afraid of death. He believed that is was impossible to be afraid of something that you do not experience or you do not know because it could be something good. According to him, death is nothing more than the separation of the immortal soul from the mortal body, and the passage of the soul to a higher plane. Those who are afraid of death do not know what death is. He taught his students even at the final moments before his death. Socrates faced death as a reality and defeated it. Soon after his death, the Athenians repented for his death and assigned Lysippus to construct a bronze statue of him, which was to be placed at the courtroom. Socrates’ accusers did not have a good end. Melitus was sentenced to death by the Athenians as killed by stoning. Anytus was exiled to Herakleia where he was also stoned to death. Lycon was exiled as well.

Today, Socrates is remembered as one of the founding fathers of philosophy worldwide. His life and work has been compared to that of Jesus Christ, having taught his philosophy around several parts of the city without founding a new school. In contrast to popular belief, Socrates wrote numerous books, which unfortunately have not survived while Jesus did not. Socrates had his students who, after his own death, founded many schools and allowed philosophy to flourish. Unlike Jesus, however, none of Socrates’ students ever betrayed him or abandoned him. Instead, they risked their lives to rescue him from his death sentence. Socrates’ students remained loyal to him until the end, proving their spiritual superiority over Jesus’ students, who did not stand by him during his death, nevertheless help him carry the cross during his crucifixion. Peter, for example swore never having met Jesus when he was asked by the Romans. Jesus promised his students Paradise and an eternal life should they follow him. Socrates never promised his students anything except for their own spiritual and ethical development. In the end, Jesus asked God on his cross why did he abandon him. Socrates never expressed sorrow and greeted death without bitterness. Through his actions, Socrates became a symbol to humanity. He holds the torch of immortality for those who wish to follow him to the Aetheric Fields and be united with the Divine Beings.

Bibliography

1. Altani. Arritoi Logoi: Hellenikos Dia-logismos. Athens: Georgiades, 2012. Print.
2. Kraut, Richard. ”Socrates”. Encyclopaedia Brittanica. Web. 1 Nov. 2016.
3. Pleuris, Konstantinos. Greek Philosophers. Athens: Hilektron, 2012. Print.
4. Pleuris, Konstantinos. Socrates Before Death. Athens: Hilektron, 2013. Print.

Epictetus

Philosopher (50 – 120)

Epictetus was a Stoic philosopher who struggled throughout his life, living homeless, with no family and having spent most of his lifetime as a slave. When he gained his freedom, he devoted his life in teaching philosophy.

Epictetus’ philosophy was quite different from the others. It was centred on life itself rather than with nature of the human being. His philosophy aimed to help common people cope with the struggles of everyday life and how to confront losses, disappointments and sorrows. According to him, we must behave in such a way that we maintain our spiritual ataraxia, a term meaning a state free of distress and filled with tranquillity. To reach this state, however, we must free ourselves from the satisfaction of our desires and from our passions. Epictetus praises family and friendship but does not accept attachments to them or to any other things since if someone is detached from them, he will be devastated by their loss.

Epictetus believed that a happy life is a life with virtues and that every person was created for a higher, special purpose. A life built with ethical values would help people become the masters of their desires, carry out their duties and learn to think clearly about oneself and about their relationship with the greater human society. Indeed, Epictetus believed very much about his philosophy being applied in everyday life. For this reason, he did not introduce any metaphysical or intricate laws in his teachings.

Epictetus didn’t leave any written form of his philosophy. Nevertheless, Arrianus, one of his brightest students wrote two books based on his teachings’ Diatribes and Enchiridion, the later being studied till this day worldwide. In the end, Epictetus did not intend to found a new Philosophical School, rather to help people liberate themselves from their passions, to endure their sufferings and to heal them. Epictetus was in the same position when he was a slave, but his remarkable endurance and his perspective on life was what made the Romans free him and let him teach them. The slave had defeated the conqueror.

Bibliography

1. Pleuris, Konstantinos. Greek Philosophers. Athens: Hilektron, 2013. Print.
2. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Brittanica. ”Epictetus” Encyclopaedia Brittanica. Web. 15 Nov. 2015.

Miltiades

General (554 BC – 489 BC)

The Greek general Miltiades was born in the city of Athens in the year 554 BC. After serving ruler of Thrace he was elected in Athens as one of the 10 generals of the city. Athenians described him as the bravest, most capable tactician and general of them all.

His time to prove it would come a year later, in 490 BC when, following the Ionian Revolt, the Persian army led by King Darius destroyed the city of Eretria and moved towards the city of Athens in hope of conquering the Greeks and seizing control of the west in its entirety. The Persians would cross the bay of Euboea and approach Athens by land through Marathon. Miltiades, who foresaw this as an opportunity to defeat the Persians, persuaded the people and the generals to vote in favor of a battle which would decide the fate of the world. Miltiades narrowly succeeded in persuading general Callimachos into voting in favor and so the decision was made. On September of 490, the 63-year-old Miltiades would lead the Athenians into battle against the vast Persian army.

It is estimated that the Greek army composed of 10.000 Athenians and 1.000 Plataeans while the Persian army is still unknown, estimated roughly by historians to around 300.000 to 600.000 men. When the battle began, Herodotus described it as the most prominent battle of all time. Despite their being outnumbered, the Greeks demolished the Persian army strategically through planning their target of attack and movement, completely attributed to Miltiades. According to historians, Miltiades was the first to use psychological war methods to his soldiers and the enemy as well as the whispering campaign to his soldiers in order to boost their ethics and degrade the ethos of their enemy. Knowing of the weak mentality of his soldiers because of the Spartans’ refusal to help, Miltiades did so by appealing to his soldier’s ideals, such as democracy (even if he himself was against it) and spreading rumors of a divine omen, respectively. Having empowered his men, Miltiades acknowledged the strategic position of their enemy and took advantage of it as no general had did before. The Persians had unknowingly chosen the worst possible place to form an army because they were surrounded by obstacles, having a swamp in front and the sea behind them. Therefore, they would either perish from the front by the Greeks or drown in the sea. This meant there was no capability of retreating. By forming the army in a shape of pliers together with the Plataeans, the Greeks were able to defeat the Persians in a most decisive battle.

Immediately after the Battle of Marathon, the rest of the Persian ships sailed from Sounion to Phaliron for one final blow. In spite of their victory, Miltiades rushed to Athens with the Plataeans to defend the city. As soon as the Persians reached the port, all hope was lost seeing Miltiades again. The attack was called off and the Persian fled in shame. The Athenians counted 192 casualties, the Platnaeans 11 and the Persians 6400 people, 7 ships, and all of their cavalry and belongings.

The outcome of the Battle of Marathon is largely attributed to Miltiades whose tactics and strategic knowledge on the battlefield  prevented the enemy from slaying Greece. His strategic maneuvers would later be imitated throughout history in decisive battles by Hannibal in the Battle of Cannae, Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher in Waterloo, Helmuth von Moltke in the Battle of Sedan, Paul von Hindenburg in the Battle of the Masurian Lakes, and General Dwight D. Eisenhower in the Invasion of Normandy, among others.

The greatest triumph of Miltiades was proving for the first time that the Persian Empire could be beaten and that resistance was not only possible but necessary. Miltiades’ victory in the Battle of Marathon marked a defining point in world history: had the battle been lost, the Persians would have conquered Greece and the world entire. Greek thought would seize to exist and therefore western civilization would have never existed.

Bibliography:

1. ”Miltiades”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens. 1946. Print.
2. Volonakis, Ioannis. Ancient Greece’s Greatest Leaders.  Athens: Georgiades, 1997. Print.