Solon

Statesman, Lawmaker, Philosopher, Poet (c638 BC – c558 BC)

Solon was born in Athens from a wealthy family descending from the last legendary king of Athens Codrus. From an early age, Solon was a philomath but the unfortunate loss of his father’s fortune made him a merchant, travelling in Egypt and Cyprus and trading Athenian products. Throughout his travels, Solon became acquainted with the way of administration of various cities he visited. With his perspicacity and philopatry, Solon was motivated to become involved in Athenian politics and save Athens from the forecoming downfall which he was sensing.

When Solon gained full power as a legislator, wealth and power was in the hands of few while the majority of the Athenians were plunged into poverty, some of them forced to become slaves to repay their debts. For this reason, Solon introduced the law of Seisachtheia, a word that means “shaking off the burden”. This law cancelled pre-existing debts, ended debt-related imprisonment and slavery, which had become rampant in Athens and returned confiscated property to their respective owners. Other laws he introduced decreased the number of lands owners were allowed to have and forbade cereal and grain export except olive oil because so much had been exported that there was not enough for the Athenians. He promoted trade and minted a new coin, which proved to be more effective in trade with other cities.

As far as concerning his political reforms, Solon laid the foundations of Athenian democracy. Through a series of laws, he gave political privilege to the people, regardless of their wealth and obliged them to participate in the administration of their city. He divided the people into 4 classes depending on their wealth and on this basis he put taxation on the basis of their income. He founded the Council of the Four Hundred, something similar to the modern day parliament, the Assembly, the sovereign body of the state in which any citizen could participate and Heliaia, the supreme court. Other important political actions of Solon were the reclaiming of Salamis in 604 BC by the Athenians, which they had lost during a war with the Maegarians, reforms in the army, introduction of strict codes of Law against homosexuality and the abolition of most of Draco’s laws, including the death penalty.

Interestingly, Solon and Plato share the same descent, henceforth being distant relatives. He has a prominent role in Plato’s magnum opus Timaeus, where Critias narrates to Socrates and the others about Solon’s visit to Egypt. There, he has a conversation with a wise priest. This conversation provides us with a huge insight on Greece’s lost history many millennia ago. The priest says “O Solon, Solon, you Hellenes are never anything but children, and there is not an old man among you”. Solon in return asked him what he meant. He replied, that “in mind you are all young; there is no old opinion handed down among you by ancient tradition, nor any science which is hoary with age. And I will tell you why. There have been, and will be again, many destructions of mankind arising out of many causes; the greatest have been brought about by the agencies of fire and water, and other lesser ones by innumerable other causes. There is a story, which even you have preserved, that once upon a time Phaethon, the son of Helios, having yoked the steeds in his father’s chariot, because he was not able to drive them in the path of his father, burnt up all that was upon the earth, and was himself destroyed by a thunderbolt. Now this has the form of a myth, but really signifies a declination of the bodies moving in the heavens around the earth, and a great conflagration of things upon the earth, which recurs after long intervals; at such times those who live upon the mountains and in dry and lofty places are more liable to destruction than those who dwell by rivers or on the seashore […]. When, on the other hand, the gods purge the earth with a deluge of water, the survivors in your country are herdsmen and shepherds who dwell on the mountains, but those who, like you, live in cities are carried by the rivers into the sea. Whereas in this land, neither then nor at any other time, does the water come down from above on the fields, having always a tendency to come up from below; for which reason the traditions preserved here are the most ancient”. […]

“Whereas just when you and other nations are beginning to be provided with letters and the other requisites of civilized life, after the usual interval, the stream from heaven, like a pestilence, comes pouring down, and leaves only those of you who are destitute of letters and education; and so you have to begin all over again like children, and know nothing of what happened in ancient times, either among us or among yourselves. As for those genealogies of yours which you just now recounted to us, Solon, they are no better than the tales of children. In the first place you remember a single deluge only, but there were many previous ones; in the next place, you do not know that there formerly dwelt in your land the fairest and noblest race of men which ever lived, and that you and your whole city are descended from a small seed or remnant of them which survived. And this was unknown to you, because, for many generations, the survivors of that destruction died, leaving no written word”. The dialogue serves as a prooemium to the priests’ narration of Atlantis, which is the core subject of Plato’s Timaeus.

Today, Solon is acknowledged as one of the founding fathers of Athenian democracy. His reputation at the time of the peak of his career grew immensely. As a result, he was considered as one of the 7 wise men of Greece. He died in old age witnessing his homeland’s prosperity thanks to his legislative reforms.

Bibliography

1. Ayfantis, Georgios. Anthropos & Epistimi – Enimerosis: Prehistory and History of Man, Science & Civilization. Athens: Hellenikon Selas, 2009. Print.
2. Plato. Timaeus – Kritias. Athens: Georgiades, 2011. Print.
3. ”Solon”. Helios. Passas, I. Athens. 1946. Print.

Hippocrates of Chios

Mathematician (c470 BC – c410 BC)

Except from Hippocrates of Cos, the famous physician and philosopher of antiquity, Greek history has preserved another Great Greek with the name Hippocrates, this one being a renowned mathematician and geometer.

According to ancient literature, he was a merchant. When he lost his goods, he travelled to Athens to earn a living. There, he came into contact with the Pythagoreans and became acquainted with mathematics.

According to Proclus, Hippocrates was the first who wrote treatises on geometry and which had a profound influence on geometry. These were termed Elements of Geometry. He discovered numerous theorems, his most important theorem being the so-called Lune of Hippocrates, which he discovered upon trying to square the circle and was preserved in Euclid’s Elements. Aside from its geometric importance, the Lune of Hippocrates is also presented as a solution to 3^rd degree algebraic equations.

Moreover, he attempted to solve the problem of “doubling the cube”. Even though he did not fully achieve it, he reduced its complexity making it simpler to solve for future mathematicians. Another of his great achievements that remains elusive to mathematicians is the use of a theorem that circles are to one another as the squares on their diameter, a theorem that was proved years later by Eudoxus, which paradoxically is already known to Hippocrates.

Hippocrates’ theorems today can only be found through references made in the works of other mathematicians or in German encyclopaedias of sciences. Hippocrates’ contributions to mathematics are but a sample of the level the ancient Greek mathematics had reached in the 5^th century BC.

Bibliography

1. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Hippocrates of Chios.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 26 Feb, 2016.

Phaedon of Elis

Philosopher (c417BC – ?)

Socrates’ favourite student, he was born to an aristocratic family but was made a prisoner of war and sold as a slave until he was freed by one of Socrates’ friends after Socrates’ own decision. His name means shining one.

Little is known about Phaedon’s philosophic theories or his life. Based on the very few surviving excerpts of his works, Phaedon believed that through philosophy one reaches true freedom and is rid of his spiritual passions. In spite of the very little information about him, it can be certain that he was at the same level as all of Socrates’ other students, all of whom achieved widespread fame. The fact that he was Socrates’ favourite student shows that he was undoubtedly a brilliant philosopher with great intellect and creativity. Phaedon was a skilled warrior and patriot who had participated in the Eliospartan war.

After his teacher’s death, Phaedon returned to his homeland in Peloponnese and founded a philosophic school, the “Socratic School of Elis”, where he taught successfully for many years. Phaedon, however, became known in the world of philosophy as a result of one of Plato’s writings entitled “Phaedon” after the philosopher. In this book, Plato describes the final moments of Socrates with his students in prison before drinking the hemlock and his discussions with them and his friends. In it, Phaedon is the central figure of a discussion with a Pythagorean philosopher named Echecrates about Socrates’ ideas on the immortality of the soul, for which he spoke about during the final moments of his life in the presence of his students, including Phaedon. It is a book that deals with the continuity of life after death.

Bibliography

1. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Phaedon of Elis” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 17 Feb. 2016.
2. Pleuris, Konstantinos. Greek Philosophers. Athens: Hilektron, 2013. Print.

Manuel Chrysoloras

Philosopher, Scholar, Writer (1355 – 1415)

A pioneer of the Renaissance, he disseminated the Greek studies in Italy and from there to the entire Europe. He was born about one century before the Fall of Constantinople. He became a student of Georgios Plethon – Gemistus, the leading figure of the Renaissance and founded a school in Constantinople, where prominent humanists from all over Europe studied.

In 1391 he was sent to Italy as a delegate of the Byzantine Emperor to seek help against the invading Turks. Even though his efforts failed due to the indifference of the West, he was wholeheartedly welcomed in Italy by the humanists.

In 1397 he settled in Florence, Italy where he became professor of Greek language and classical studies. He was the first one to hold a public teaching office of Greek language in Italy. His prominence attracted numerous enlightened Italian humanists, namely Niccolo Niccoli, Guarino da Verona, Roberto Rossi, Leonardo Bruni, Jiacopo Angeli da Scarperia, Pier Paolo Vergerio, Poggio Bracciolini etc, all of which became well known figures of history. Moreover, he taught in Pavia, Venice and Rome. Chrysoloras translated Plato’s Republic together with his students and wrote a Greek grammar, which became a widely used textbook in universities.

Following his successful career as a scholar, Chrysoloras left Italy and became a diplomat of Manuel Palaiologos. He travelled throughout Europe in an attempt to reunite the two churches during the West-East Schism.

For his polymathy and for his method of disseminating his vast knowledge to his students, Chrysoloras played a very important role in the development of the Greek studies in Italy and was compared to as the “sun”, according to Guirano da Verona, his most loyal student, “who illuminated Italy, which was drowned in the darkness”.

Bibliography

1. ”Chrysoloras, Manuel”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens. 1946. Print.
2. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Manuel Chrysoloras.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 11 Feb. 2016.

Hipparchus

Astronomer, Mathematician, Philosopher, Geographer, Inventor (c.190 BC – c.120 BC)

The greatest astronomer who ever lived. His massive work spans the fields of astronomy, mathematics, geography and philosophy, all of which contributed enormously to the revival of the sciences during the Renaissance as well as the development of modern technology.

He wrote numerous books, most of which were lost during the fire of the library of Alexandria. Fortunately, excerpts from some of his most important works were included in Ptolemy’s “Almagest” and were enough to know his work as well as to acknowledge him as one of the greatest geniuses of all time. Other scientists, such as Strabo, Pliny and Plutarch also saved some excerpts.

Hipparchus used many different instruments in astronomy, most important of which were the astrolabe, the plinthis and the quadrant. With the astrolabe he was able to make precise measurements on the coordinates of the asterisms, as well as discover the equinoctial precession, which is considered as the third most important motion of our planet, after the one around the sun and around its own axis. The plinthis was a simple astronomical instrument suitable to calculate the latitude of a place while the quadrant was a sophisticated instrument used in astronomy and navigation for the calculation of astronomical sizes. It was also used in topography and construction for the measurement of terrestrial distances. In addition, it could be used at any given hour of the day as a locator of place and as a sundial. Other instruments were the epipedosphairos, with which he could make stereographic projection, which he also discovered using the device and the dioptre, with which he was able to calculate precisely the distance between the sun and the moon. He also attempted to measure the size of the sun and the moon, but his instruments at the time were imperfect. Other instruments include the heliorologion, heliotropion, the hourglass, the solid sphere, the hydrologion and many more.

Hipparchus is the father of trigonometry, a branch in mathematics that deals with the relationships of angles and triangles. Even though spherical trigonometry was already known and used by Apollonius of Perga before him, Hipparchus used this to calculate spherical triangles in order to solve various astronomical problems. He was the first to perform the stereographic projection of the sphere. Hipparchus was interested in meteorology and used his mathematical knowledge to establish some empirical prognostics which he used to predict the weather. In geography, he proved that the geographic latitude of a place is equal to the height of the polar star from the horizon of that place and that the geographic longitude of two places is equal to the difference of time between the two places. He created geographical maps based on mathematical calculations which advanced the science of chartography.

Hipparchus’ major field of interest was astronomy. One day, while he was gazing at the sky, he noticed a bright star which he had not seen before. Since he knew all the stars in the sky, he realized that it was a new star, the first “new” star ever recorded in astronomic literature. Then, Hipparchus made a decision, according to Pliny “to undertake a work before which even God will retreat”. He decided to make a catalogue of all the stars of the sky, providing them with their exact spot and brightness in such a way that future astronomers would know whether the stars they observed were new or existed thousands of years ago. Thus, Hipparchus introduced the fundamental notion in astronomy that “stars are not eternal in the sky”.

Hipparchus’ chart contained 1080 stars with their exact coordinates. Timochares, another astronomer had made a similar chart 166 years before him. Hipparchus compared his chart with that of his predecessor and concluded that the stars had shifted their position by two degrees. This is how he managed to discover and measure the equinoctial precession or axial precession, one of the greatest discoveries in the history of astronomy. Hipparchus calculated that the Earth completed a precessional rotation around its axis every 26.000 years. Furthermore, he calculated with exact precision the duration of the year, the duration of the months, the obliquity of the ecliptic, numerous measurements concerning the moon’s orbit, calculated the Earth’s longest cycle with extraordinary accuracy and precision, created models for the motion of the sun and the moon, discovered important aspects of the planetary orbits and many other discoveries.

Hipparchus is recognized worldwide as the father of scientific astronomy and trigonometry. His immense success was based on his brilliant observation of the star sky, followed by their calculation and then drawing conclusions based on his observations. His observations and his discoveries are still used today in a myriad of sciences, from engineering and navigation, to game development and crystallography.

Bibliography

1. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. Ancient Greek Scientists. Georgiades: Athens, 1995. Print.
2. ”Hipparchus”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens. 1946. Print.
3. Kotsanas, Kostas. Ancient Greek Technology: The Inventions of the Ancient Greeks.  Pyrgos: Kostas Kotsanas, 2013. Print.
4. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica.”Hipparchus.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 4 Feb, 2011.

Archimedes

Mathematician, Physicist, Engineer, Inventor, Astronomer (c.287 BC – c.212 BC)

“Give me a place to stand and I will move the Earth”. These were Archimedes’ spoken words when he discovered the mathematical principles of the lever. Archimedes’ discoveries where so groundbreaking that, had they not been lost for so many years, he would have moved the Earth toward the future long time ago. The world wouldn’t have been the same as it is today.

Born in the Greek colony Syracuse, Archimedes expressed his mathematical talent from a very young age. It was when the Golden Age of mathematics had reached its peak when Archimedes made his contributions. In the field of engineering, Archimedes invented the hydraulic endless screw, a mechanism for pumping water with a small distance in height still used today to transport fluids. He also invented the windlass, a device consisting of co-operating worm gears and gearwheels inside a box used for the elevation or the drawing of heavy objects with minimal manpower. He was eventually hired by the king of Syracuse, who was so amazed by his genius that he declared that everything Archimedes said, it had to be executed. Under his reign, Archimedes would combine knowledge and practice from mathematics, physics, architecture and hydraulics to construct his hometown’s defense systems. Namely, the “iron hand”, a defense war machine consisting of a grappling hook based on a rotating platform. When a ship approached, the hook would catch the ship and, following a series of mechanisms, elevate it and then release it, thus crushing against the water or rocks. Another invention was the stone throwing crane, which was used to face Roman ships by throwing stones. In addition, Archimedes invented the steam cannon and used mirrors to burn the ships of the Romans from afar, using the sunlight. The machines were so effective that even when a simple stick emerged from the walls of Syracuse, the Romans retreated in panic. In spite of Archimedes’ frightening machines, he was also the inventor of games. He created the ostomachion, a puzzle game widely played in antiquity.

Archimedes’ love, however, was in the field of mathematics. He invented the method of checking the purity of gold while in his bathtub, was the first to prove that π=3,14 by the polygonal approach and computed the volume of the sphere using the known volumes of the cone and the cylinder. This he considered as his greatest discovery and asked that it be inscribed on his gravestone. He is the father of calculus, a branch of mathematics which deals with change and which was not developed until the 17^th century. Archimedes set the foundations of this branch more than 2000 years ago by using very complex mathematics in his head when he was concocting a way to determine the volume of the sphere. He imagined cutting the shapes into an infinite number of slices and using them in balancing the scale to achieve his goal. This method of infinite slicing and summation is used today widespread in nearly all sciences, from calculating the movement of planets to the flight path of a spacecraft. Archimedes’ contributions were great in number and importance but they exceed the scope of this page for their complexity.

In the beginning of the 20^th century was discovered a book which contained works of Archimedes thought to have been lost forever. The book became known as the Palimpsest of Archimedes and deciphering it proved to be a very difficult task. Archimedes’ words lay under the words of a medieval prayer book, which was written over Archimedes’ original text. The original manuscripts were scrapped, rotated ninety-degrees and then refolded to make further double sheets, on which the Euchologion was written. On deciphering the ancient text, scientists discovered that Archimedes was closer to our age than was to his own. The Palimpsest contained seven treatises: The Equilibrium of Planes, Spiral Lines, The Measurement of the Circle, Sphere and Cylinder, The Floating Bodies, The Method of Mechanical Theorems and Stomachion. These treatises contained information that had the Palimpsest not been lost for so many years, the world would be a very different place today. One of them, The Method of Mechanical Theorems is unique in its kind. He did not just write the proofs of his theorems; he revealed the way he thought, the methods and the techniques he used to solve his mathematical problems. For the first time, it was as if delving inside Archimedes’ mind.

As of today, the entire Palimpsest has been deciphered. Scientists have acknowledged the fact that Archimedes not only made the first steps in calculus, but he developed it to an unimaginable depth, providing one of the most powerful tools of mathematics to humanity. Everything science uses today is a result of one man’s discoveries. If the Palimpsest had not been lost for more than a millennium, mathematics today would have been in a much higher level and since mathematics is the common language to all sciences, they as well would have been very different. Scientists believe that we could have been to Mars or have flown to the moon many years ago. Today’s humanity owes everything to the man who moved the Earth.

Bibliography

1. Cor Bric. ARCHIMEDES Forgotten Genius Documentary. YouTube. 15 April, 2015. Web. 29 December, 2015.
2. “Archimedes”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
3. Kotsanas, Kostas. Ancient Greek Technology The inventions of the ancient Greeks. Pyrgos: Kostas Kotsanas, 2013. Print.

 

Elias Venezis

Novelist (1904-1973)

One of the major novelists of modern Greece, Elias Venezis, whose actual name was Elias Mellos, was born in Ayvalik. He is considered one of the most influential novelists of the Generation of the 30’s, capturing the sociopolitical and geopolitical changes of modern Greece and the Greek genocide of 1931-1923.

Venezis was taken prisoner by the Turkish Army and sent to the amele taburu, Turkish concentration camps. His account of the tortures and sufferings endured by the Greeks were captured in great detail in his most celebrated work The Number 31328 which has been translated in many languages.

During the German occupation in Greece, he was again sent to a concentration camp in Greece where he again survived. The experiences of the Greeks in this infamous camp were documented into his play Block C which premiered in Athens in 1945. The hardships of the Greek people during the radical sociopolitical changes of the early 20th century and their persecution by the Turks and their allies were also documented in many other of his novels such as Manolis Lekas and Other Stories, Tranquility, Aeolian Earth,  and Exodus.

His works carry both historical as well emotional weight and for his contribution to modern Greek literature and history he was awarded the National Literature Prize and became a member of the Academy of Athens.

Bibliography

1. ”Venezis, Elias”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.
2. ”Νούμερο 31328”. mixanitouxronou.gr. 2 Jul. 2016. Web. 26 Jan. 2016.

Nearchus

Navarch (c. 360 – 301 BC)

Born in Crete around 360 BC, Nearchus is known for being Alexander the Great’s navarch, mentor, and one of his closest allies.

Before becoming a navarch, Nearchus took part in Alexander the Great’s campaigns in Greece, the war against the Persian Empire and the subsequent Indian campaign. He was appointed general of Alexander’s aides and fought in all the battles in Asia against the Persian Empire. In 332 BC he was appointed satrap of Lycia, where he remained for 5 years, successfully establishing the Greek governance. Following his rule in Lycia, he fought in all battles during the campaign in India, with Alexander distinguishing him for his leadership and courage.

Nearchus was appointed navarch of a massive expedition in 326 BC. He began his journey with 1800 ships from the Hydaspes river and sailed through the Indus River. Then, with 2000 ships, he set sail for the Persian Golf, sailing along the coast on a mission to explore the lands and cities, document the areas, and create maps. His documents, although lost, are still available through Arrianos’s Indica, a detailed account of his exploration of the Asian south which provided an entirely new view of the continent. The entire journey is estimated to be 650 nautical miles.

Following his contribution to the liberation, establishment and expansion of the Greek state to Asia, he was awarded the highest honor among all others by Alexander the Great. After Alexander’s death, he ruled as satrap of Lycia and Pamphilia, taking part in numerous other battles for the perpetuation of the Greek state.

Bibliography

1. ”Nearchus”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.
2. Pleuris, Konstantinos. King Alexander. Athens: Hilektron, 2015. Print.

Aristarchus of Samos

Astronomer (310 – 250 BC)

Aristarchus of Samos was of the brightest minds of science, being the first to mathematically prove that the Sun is at the centre of the universe and that all planets revolve around it. Although not the first to talk about the Heliocentric model of the universe, as Plato, Anaxagoras, Philolaos, Pythagoras, Archelaos, and Aanaximandros had before him, Aristarchos became the main proponent and supporter of the model.

Born around 310 B.C., Aristarchus became a student of Strato and conducted multiple astronomical studies during his stay at Alexandria. Early on, he measured Earth’s distance from the Moon and the Sun as well as their size.

What is one of man’s greatest scientific feats is the proof of the Heliocentric model. Aristarchus first provided scientific basis and proved that the Earth rotates around its axis and revolves around the Sun in a fixed position in the universe, almost 1600 years before Copernicus who is often incorrectly attributed of the feat. Therefore, he dismissed the Geocentric model of the universe in which the Earth was considered the centre of the universe. Moreover, he proved that the Earth makes an annual rotation around the Sun and a daily rotation around its own axis. He measured that the Sun’s diameter is 20 times bigger than that of Earth’s and the Earth’s being 3 times bigger than that of the Moon’s. Most of his work on astronomy has been lost but still survives through the writings of other ancient Greek philosophers such as Archimedes and Sextos Empeirikos.

His contribution to science and humanity proved to be immense by giving people an understanding of the laws of the universe. The scientific value of his studies contributed to the rise of the Renaissance and the development of mankind’s technology and reason.

Bibliography

1. ”Aristarchus”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.
2. Pleuris, Konstantinos. The Greeks, Issue 2. Athens: Hilektron, 2013. Print.

Nikolaos Mantzaros

Composer (1795 – 1873)

Born in Corfu, Nikolaos Mantzaros was a prominent composer and founder of the Ionian School of music. He was a major influence in his field, setting the foundation for modern Greek music.

Having studied music from an early age, Mantzaros declined numerous offers, including an offer of becoming headmaster of the prestigious Milan Conservatory, in order to focus on his goal of reviving the Greek classical arts through music. As president of the Philharmoniki Hetairia of Kerkyra, he taught  music for free and published academic works on music.

Mantzaros holds the distinction of being the first Greek composer of Greek opera (Don Crepuscolo), the first Greek string quartet (Partimenti), the first Greek pedagogic music texts, and the first Greek piano repertoire, among many others.

Mantzaros is most famous for setting the music of the Greek national anthem ”Hymn to Liberty”in 1865, with lyrics by Dionysios Solomos. He did so for the first two stanzas of the original anthem and then for the entire anthem. ”Hymn to Liberty” remains both Greece’s and Cyprus’ national anthem, with both Manztaros and Solomos hailed on national commemorations.  He also set to music many poems by Dionysios Solomos such as ”Evrikomi”, ”The Poisoned” and ”To the Death of Lord Byron”.

The Nikolaos Mantzaros Museum of Music in Corfu honors Manztaros’ services to the Greek state by exhibiting his work and history.

Bibliography

1. ”Mantzaros, Nikolaos”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.
2. Xanthoudakis, Kardamis, and Dimitris Brovas. ”The Unknown Mantzaros”. Ionio.gr. 18 Jan. 2016.