Cosmas of Aetolia

Teacher of the Greek Nation (1714 – 1779)

One of the greatest spiritual figures of the 18^th century and the greatest Teacher of the Greek nation during the Turkish rule. He was born approximately 100 years before the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence in Aetolia and became a monk in Mount Athos after studying theology and philosophy close to monks. There he delved into the spiritual teachings of Christianity and completed his studies next to prominent Teachers of the Greek nation, namely Eugenios Vulgaris. From that point onward, Cosmas walked the lands of his subjugated country in an effort to combat illiteracy and imbue his people with freedom to rise against the Turks.

His work can be summarized as following: He travelled to villages and preached with great passion. His preaches had either religious or ethnic theme. He spoke the language of the people, which was simple but also powerful, inspiring and patriotic. He preached about love, solidarity, against speculation, the rich, the merchants and mainly against islamization. Huge crowds of Greeks and even Turks gathered in awe to listen to his words.

He founded churches and 247 Greek schools in 30 municipalities that he passed from in just 16 years. Cosmas had said that “It is better to have schools in your country rather than rivers and fountains, because rivers water the body, schools water the soul”. He encouraged the Greeks to study the Greek language and to baptize their children. For this reason he founded 4000 baptismal fonts. In addition, he freed 1500 Christian midwives from the harems of the Pasha.

Cosmas was more than a teacher and revolutionary. He was a prophet and a thaumaturgist. He prophesized events about the future of the Greek race, most of which occurred and are still occurring today. He predicted the automobiles, the telephone and the airplane. It is believed that Cosmas cured the deaf and the paralyzed, according to descriptions in his two books Teachings and Prophecies.

A poor and humble monk, Cosmas managed with his own efforts to plant the seeds of liberty in the souls of the Greeks. His preaches caused the hatred of the Jewish and the Turks, who arrested him and subsequently hanged him in public view. His body was then thrown into a river and was found and buried by a monk in Kolikontasi, where every year he is celebrated as a saint after his canonization by the Orthodox Church on the day of his death. His tremendous impact on his fellow Greeks renders him a prodrome of the Greek War of Independence.

Bibliography

1. ΑΓΙΟΣ ΚΟΣΜΑΣ Ο ΑΙΤΩΛΟΣ. Agrino.org. August 21, 2016. Web.
2. Father Maxim Varvaris. Ο ΒΙΟΣ ΤΟΥ ΙΕΡΟΜΑΡΤΥΡΟΣ  ΚΑΙ ΙΣΑΠΟΣΤΟΛΟΥ ΚΟΣΜΑ ΤΟΥ ΑΙΤΩΛΟΥ. Agioskosmas.gr. August 21, 2016. Web.
3. “Kosmas o Aetolos”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.

Herodotus

Historian (c485 BC – c413? BC)

Herodotus of Halicarnassus was a historian and geographer of the 5th century BC. First named Father of History by Cicero, his title was preserved throughout the ages because he was the first to write a book on world history in a scientific manner, with impartiality, research and critique. He was the first to introduce the term Ἱστορία (History) as the science of knowing, giving it its modern meaning and the first who attempted to write down historical facts with accuracy, truth and honesty. Herodotus spent much of his life in Athens, where he formed a close friendship with Pericles, Sophocles and Protagoras and founded a colony together with the latter in Southern Italy.

His magnum opus Ἰστορίαι (Histories) is the founding book of history in the Western World. It has been divided into 9 tomes each named after each Muse. The first book contains a proemium on the foundation of the Persian Empire and its rivalries with Greece. The second book is about Kambysus’ rule in Africa. The third book concerns Darius’ enthronement and rise to power, the siege of Samos by the Persians and its procession to Greece. The fourth book contains Darius’ campaigns against Scythia, Libya, Thrace and Hellespontus. The fifth is exclusively about the Ionian revolution while the sixth chronicles the glorious events leading to the Battle of Marathon. The seventh book in the series continues from where the sixth book left with the Battle of Thermopylae and the Battle of Salamis. The last two books of the series end with Xerxes’ retreat and the epic Battle of Plataea.

Contrary to popular belief Herodotus did not limit himself to history. He wrote books on anthropology, ethnography, biology and most importantly medicine. Herodotus’ books are of special interest because they are the primary source of pre-Hippocratic medicine. They include elements of pathology, surgery, psychiatry, ophthalmology, orthopedics and hygiene. They also contain descriptions on anthropologic findings such as traditions and practices of various races.

Herodotus’ works had tremendous influence worldwide even during antiquity. He did not simply document what happened; rather he proceeded in analysing, interpreting and explaining the historical facts using proofs he had gathered from meticulous research involving the city archives, oral accounts, older bibliography and personal investigations. For this reason they were free of mythological elements. He believed that behind every cause was the Divine, which was conceived by philosophers as the primordial principle of Anaximander.

Nevertheless, Herodotus was not objective and his writings contain a lot of historical errors, misconceptions and inaccuracies. This rose controversy among historians of later eras, most notably from Plutarch, who vehemently accused Herodotus for criticizing the Ionian revolution, the Thebans and the Corinthians, diminishing the Spartans’ contribution in the Persian Wars, disregarding Themistocles’ role in the Battle of Salamis, exaggerating the role of Athens and for being a “philobarbarian” by considering the Egyptians better than the Greeks. He even wrote a book entirely on Herodotus’ criticism called «Περὶ κακοηθείας Ἡροδότου». In spite of his flaws, however, he is regarded as a pioneer scientist as his contributions in history and anthropology are unique.

Bibliography

1. “Herodotus”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.
2. ΕΛΛΗΝΩΝ ΔΙΚΤΥΟ. ΗΡΟΔΟΤΟΣ. Hellinon.net. August 20, 2016. Web.

Eugenios Spatharis

Shadow puppeteer (1924 – 2009)

The most prominent and influential shadowplayer in Greece, a man who gave up his architectural studies to dedicate himself to the art of Karagiozis, recognized as the hero of children to some and the “Father of Karagiozis” to others. As a young enthusiast and painter, Spatharis quickly followed his father’s footsteps, who was a prominent shadow puppeteer himself, and became an original animator of the folk hero Karagiozis, whom he uplifted, exalted and popularized as a form of art worldwide.

From 1942 to 1950 Spatharis travelled around Greece performing in various theatres and festivals. His debut outside of Greece is traced as far back as 1953 when he performed at the Carnegie Hall in New York, Cuba and Canada. In 1954 he performed at the World Conference and Festival of Shadow Theatre in Brussels and in 1959 at the International Festival of Shadow Theatre in Paris. In 1962 he published his first records of Karagiozis for Columbia Company while in 1966 Spatharis began broadcasting his performances in the Peiramatikos Stathmos Tileorasis channel, which continued until 1992. He continued his work by performing in the Festival of Eastern Countries in Poland, London, Germany and Denmark while simultaneously exhibiting his shadow figures. Moreover, he toured the Netherlands, Cyprus, France, Sweden, Italy and Russia participating in multiple international shadow theatre festivals. Numerous awards followed.

Spatharis was a man of many hobbies; he acted, he sang, he wrote plays, books and painted. He collaborated with various notable Greek artists of the 20^th century during his career, namely with Manos Hadjidakis, Dionysis Savvopoulos, Melina Merkouri, Thanasis Veggos and Manos Xarchakos. He wrote the script for numerous plays such as “Karagiozis the Dictator”, “Athanasios Diakos”, “Our Great Circus” and “Alexander”, the latter which was an immense success in Greece, while in some others he acted himself. Furthermore, he appeared in many films and TV commercials where he voiced Karagiozis.

By the end of the 20^th century Spatharis had made Karagiozis into a worldwide spectacle adored by children and adults alike. He was invited to the Universities of London, Oxford and Cambridge as a lecturer on the art of Karagiozis. He was also invited to teach the art of shadow theatre in France. He founded the School of Shadow Theatre in Denmark while the Municipality of Amarousion in Athens founded the Spathareion Museum of Shadow Theatre in his memory exhibiting his works in an effort to teach the youth what Karagiozis represents in modern Greece’s history.

In his later years, Eugenios Spatharis, “The Master” as he came to be known became highly respected among the artistic and even the literary community, earning the admiration of Angelos Sikelianos. In 2002 the Cultural Organization of Lemessos in Cyprus organized a theatrical play entitled “Spatharis the Greek” featuring himself as the protagonist in his honour. In 2007 he was awarded a golden plaque by the Ministry of Culture for his contributions in Greek folk tradition and Greek civilization, spanning a total of 65 years of love, dedication and creativity.

Bibliography

1. Spathareio Museum of Shadow Theatre Municipality of Maroussi. Eugenios Spatharis the Shadowplayer. Karagiozismuseum.gr. August 18, 2016. Web.
2. ”Γεννήθηκε ο Ευγένιος Σπαθάρης, που παράτησε την αρχιτεκτονική για χάρη του Καραγκιόζη”. mixanitouxronou.gr. 29 Sep. 2015. Web. 18 Aug. 2015.
3. Ευγένιος Σπάθαρης: Ο γνήσιος τροβαδούρος της λαϊκής παράδοσης. Tvxs.gr. August 18, 2016. Web.

Pytheas

Oceanographer, Geographer, Explorer, Mathematician, Astronomer (4^th century BC)

Pytheas was a daring explorer and adventurer from the Greek city of Massalia who became the first Greek recorded in history to visit the British Isles during the 4^th century BC. With his travels in the northern seas and in the elusive island of Thule, Pytheas surpassed the known borders of the world.

Pytheas accurately calculated the latitude of Massalia using Anaximander’s gnomon, the perimeter of Britain (approximately 7400 km) and the distance from Massalia and Britain. He was the first who showed that the moon affects the tides, made observations on the summer solstice, the midnight sun, showed that the pole star is not at the true pole and identified the triangular shape of Britain. His primary works On the Ocean and Earth’s Period chronicle Pytheas’ travels in the northern seas of the globe and document his scientific observations and discoveries in the lands he visited.

Pytheas’ voyage began as a quest for tin and amber, two valuable elements used for trade with the neighboring city-states. Pytheas’ geographic and astronomic knowledge was the reason for him leading the expedition. He sailed to Gibraltar, then crossed the Pillars of Hercules and reached the Atlantic Ocean. Pytheas continued sailing along the shores of France until he reached Cornwall where he found tin. From there he continued north to Ireland, Scotland and Norway where he found amber. He then sailed to the Baltic Sea and explored the lands of northern Europe. His second voyage started from the Northern Isles of Great Britain, which he named Orkney Islands, a name that remains to this day. He then crossed the English Channel and followed his way back to Massalia. Fragments of his works reveal several descriptions of the Brittany peninsula, Ushant, the Isle of Wight, various ports of the ancient world as well as the tribes he met.

Lastly, Pytheas sailed to an island called Thule in his text, which he reached after sailing for 6 days from the northernmost part of Britain. Thule was the northernmost inhabited island found in the Arctic Circle. According to the fragments of his works, Thule had the longest daytime during the summer solstice. This is evident from Geminus’ accounts who wrote that “… the Barbarians showed us the place where the sun goes to rest. For it was the case that in these parts the nights were very short, in some places two, in others three hours long, so that the sun rose again a short time after it had set”. Pytheas had discovered the phenomenon of the midnight sun, which is observed in the lands in the Arctic Circle. Furthermore Pytheas witnessed icebergs, iceblocks and lava. Modern geographers are still bewildered as far as concerning the actual location of Thule.

It is presumed that this was Pytheas’ last voyage until he sailed back to his hometown. Renowned French admiral and explorer Louis Antoine de Bougainville wrote about Pytheas “We are obliged to place Pytheas in the catalogue of Vasco da Gama, Cristopher Colombus and Magellan. Them too a kind of conquerors who are worth surviving in the memory of men…”

Bibliography

1. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. Ancient Greek Scientists. Athens: Georgiades, 1995. Print.
2. ”Pytheas”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
3. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Pytheas” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 16 August. 2016.
4. ”Πυθέας ο Μασσαλιώτης”. mixanhtouxronou.gr. 11 Apr. 2016. Web. 17 Aug. 2016.

Heraclius

Byzantine Emperor (c575 – 641)

Heraclius was Emperor of Byzantium from 510 until his death in 641. During his 30 year reign he dealt with multiple crises that had been plaguing the Byzantine Empire, most importantly the siege of Jerusalem by the Persians in 614, the massacre of Jerusalem and the transport of the Holy Cross to Persia, the economic crisis in 619 – 622, the invasion of the Slavs and the Avars in the Balkans, the conquest of the Holy Lands and the siege of Constantinople by the Muslims and their descent in Egypt and Mesopotamia.

When Heraclius ascended to throne, the Byzantine Empire was on the verge of total collapse. Lombards were roaming southern Italy, Avars had descended to Thessaloniki and the Persians had occupied the lands of Mesopotamia and were marching towards Syria and Antioch. Later they conquered Palestine, Jerusalem and the Holy Lands. Heraclius’ first actions were to wage war against the Persians and reclaim the Holy Lands. He began by building the defense of his empire, gave Serbia, Bosnia and Croatia to the Slavs and signed a peace treaty with the Avars. He organized the Byzantine army and campaigned against the Persians. He liberated Asia Minor, Pontus and Armenia from Persian rule after a series of victorious battles.

In 627 Heraclius began his fourth and last campaign against the Persian Empire. The decisive Battle of Nineveh (627) marked the victory of the Byzantine Empire over the Persians. Heraclius signed a peace treaty forcing the Persian Empire to retreat to its former borders, free its prisoners and give Heraclius the Holy Cross. When Heraclius returned to Constantinople he was hailed as Moses and was welcomed with the highest honours. The Holy Cross was transported back to the Holy Lands, which he had reclaimed. 14^th of September, the day which the Holy Cross was raised is celebrated to this day by the Orthodox Church.

After his conquest, the Emperor militarized and organized the administration of Asia Minor. He implemented the theme system (θέματα), administrative, military regions which proved to be very effective, if not revolutionary for the Byzantine army and economy. Mercenaries were replaced with natives in the army and were given agricultural land. For the first time, Greek was established as the official language of the Byzantine Empire, replacing Latin. Over the years, this movement of Heraclius resulted in the Hellenization of the entire Byzantium and the spread of Greek literature and philosophy.

Heraclius was described as an influential leader who was loved by the people. Even though deeply religious, he was not possessed by religious fanaticism. He has been regarded as an inspiring strategist who waged war against his enemies in a less inhumane manner; he did not massacre, burn down cities or treat prisoners of war with cruelty. Unfortunately because of his failing health he did not have the strength to defend his empire during the final years of his life when the Muslims became the major enemy of the Byzantine Empire.

For his political and administrative reforms, the reorganization, strengthening and Hellenization of the Byzantine Empire together with the reconquest of the Holy Lands Heraclius ranks highly among the Byzantine Emperors by contemporary and modern scholars.

Bibliography

1. ”Heraclius”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
2. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Heraclius” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 12 August. 2016.

Themistocles

General, Statesman, Strategist (c. 524 – 459 BC)

Themistocles was an Athenian statesman and the leading commander of the victorious Battle of Salamis against the Persians in 480 BC.Born into an Athenian family, Themistocles was a skilled strategist and stood out from a young age; Greek historian Thucydides describes him as a man who had figurative prudence as a young man and being able to predict and solve forthcoming problems. In 490 BC. Themistocles fought against the Persian army in the decisive Battle of Marathon alongside the general Miltiades.

Following the fall of the aristocratic power in Athenian politics, Themistocles entered politics and became ruling archon of Athens in 493 BC. He managed to convince politicians and citizens that the war against  the Persian Empire was not over but a second invasion was on its way. As archon he built, organized an fortified the harbor of Piraeus after transferring it from Phaleron, and organized the naval forces of Athens, building up to 200 triremes. Therefore, when Xerxes’ army was to invade Athens, they would be ready to face it.

Learning that Xerxes’ army was marching towards Athens, the Athenians sought the help of the Oracle of Delphi to request for a prediction. After a pessimistic and discouraging first prediction, the Athenians were given a prediction that said that the ”wooden wall” was impenetrable.  Themistocles not only deciphered the first discouraging prediction into a victory for the Greeks but also the second one, convincing most Athenians that ”wooden walls” referred to the wooden triremes and not the wooden fortress of the Acropolis (as it was back then). His decision that a naval battle would lead the Greeks to victory verified Thucydides’ description of Themistocles. Themistocles also managed to evacuate the city of Athens and lead the people to Peloponnese in time while ensuring their well-being.

In 480 BC. Themistocles, along with Adeimandos and Eurybiades led a series of naval battles against the Persian army: The Battle of Artemisium and the Battle of Salamis. The Battle of Artemisium took place simultaneously with the Battle of Thermopylae. King Leonidas and the Spartans would lead an army to block the Persians from descending to Athens and Peloponnese from land, while Themistocles would block their naval forces. Following the defeat of Leonidas at Thermopylae, the Greek naval army decided to retreat to Salamis. Using his persuasion skills and his strategic knowledge, Themistocles came up with the ideal strategy to defeat the Persian army in Salamis, persuaded the Peloponnese army to join the battle, and subsequently lured the Persians into believing that the Greeks had surrendered and awaited in Salamis with the help of his Persian slave Sicinnus. Xerxes bought into it and the Battle of Samalis began.Themistocles had organized the battle in such a way so as the massive Persian naval army would become trapped between the narrow gulf and the Greeks, with their smaller triremes, would penetrate the Persian ships. The Persian naval forces were aligned in rows, so each time the front row would be attacked by the Greek ships, the following ones would be unable to flee as land was behind them. Themistocles’ genius plan  defeated the outnumbering Persian army with very few casualties: The Greek army constituted of 378 or 310 triremes with 70.000-80.000 men. The Persian army constituted of 1207 triremes with 250.000-300.00 men. The Greeks lost 40 or 60 triremes and the Persians 200-300.

The Greek victory shook the Persian army to its core. Xerxes, who was watching the entire battle from mount Aegaleon was so frightened that ordered the retreat of his entire army from Phaleron and Athens. Themistocles’ outstanding work and bravery was hailed by the Greeks; the Spartans awarded him with the award of bravery and skill. They also awarded him with the most beautiful chariot of Sparta. During the Olympic games of 476 BC. when people saw Themistocles entering the stadium they cheered and hailed him as a national hero. Following the battle, Themistocles returned to politics, building a giant wall to protect the city of Athens. After the acclaim came his downfall which resulted to a sad and awful fate.

Historians regard Themistocles as a master strategist and tactician and the Battle of Salamis as one of the most important battle in human history; it is estimated that had the Greeks lost the battle, the Persians would have not only conquered Greece but move and expand throughout Europe. The Greek civilization would have ceased to flourish and therefore Europe and the rest of the western world would have never existed as science, art, philosophy, technology and politics would have never reached them. Consequently, the Battle of Salamis marks the turning-point in Greek, European and world history and the man behind the victory is undoubtedly a timeless figure of heroism.

Bibliography

1. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Themistocles” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 11 August. 2016.
2. ”Themistocles”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
3. Volonakis, Ioannis. The Great Leaders of Ancient Greece. Georgiades: Athens, 1997.

Anaximander

Philosopher, Mathematician, Astronomer, Physicist (610 BC – 546 BC)

One of the greatest minds who ever lived, second great philosopher of Miletus after Thales, teacher of Pythagoras and student of the former, whom he succeeded in the Milesian School. An astronomer, biologist, cartographer, cosmologist and cosmographer, Anaximander’s contribution to philosophy is considered to have been of great influence and importance. He was the founder of scientific geometry, innovator of mathematical astronomy and of biology of evolution. His theories on metaphysics, cosmology and the apeiron (infinitum) are unique, way ahead of their times and puzzle scientists and philosophers to this day.

He was the first philosopher to write a book entitled “Περὶ Φύσεως” (De Naturae), in which the world was interpreted in a scientific manner free from mythological dogmas. The book contained maps of the world and possibly of the night sky with the distances of stars and planets. This daring book was studied by Aristotle even though it was very hard to find even in antiquity. Anaximander compiled the first geographical map of the world based on the scientific evidence contained all of the geographical data that existed. The map was highly received by his contemporaries.

Anaximander’s astronomical and planetary system was constructed based on geometrical analogies and calculations. He devised the gnomon, a sundial-like tool used to determine the equinoxes with its shadow, the hours and the duration of the day. His excellent knowledge in geometry enabled him to measure the distance between stars and place them in firmament. Among his most important discoveries were the fact that the sun did not “drown” into the ocean in the west and rise again from it in the east, rather that the sun follows a cyclical orbit and that the Earth floats unsupported.

His rejection of the mythological creation of the universe and the origin of beings by God led him to the formulation of his theory involving the apeiron (the infinite). Anaximander’s idea on the infinite was that it was the source of all life, the immortal principle that rules and defines all worlds. All living beings are created from the infinite. He rejected Thales’ theory that life was created by a change from a primary substance, which was water according to Thales, and introduced the theory that life was created by opposing forms of matter as a result of the action of perpetual motion (αϊδίου κινήσεως). This perpetual motion was the cause of the creation of life. The fact, however, that most of Anaximander’s works have been lost, combined with the fact that he used words of various meanings has given multiple interpretations to his theory on the infinite. Others believe that Anaximander possibly meant that the infinite was in fact all the elements together.

One of his most astounding and concurrently interesting theories that changed the world was the existence of parallel worlds. He speculated that the Cosmos is made up of an indefinite number of worlds. The world constantly decays, consequently wears off and is then reborn infinite times, presenting an infinite number of cosmic phases.

Anaximander was the first to speak about the evolution of species predating Darwin by thousands of years. According to his theory, the first living organisms originated from the sea and had a prickly skin, which slowly fell off as the organisms moved toward land and became new species. Since it seemed unlikely how a toddler could take care of itself and survive, Anaximander believed that man came into being from animals since they could live by themselves from a very small age. To support his theory, Anaximander provided the example of the school shark. Nevertheless, for Anaximander, the beginning of all living matter in the world was the infinite. All beings escaped from infinity and became finite by taking on a form. Because of their imperfection, beings are destroyed, lose their form and return to infinity.

Bibliography

1. Anaximandros. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
2. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. Ancient Greek Scientists. Athens: Georgiades, 1995. Print.
3. Pleures, Konstantinos. Greek Philosophers. Athens: Hilektron, 2014. Print.

Odysseus Elytis

Poet (1911 – 1996)

The major representative of romantic modernism in Greece, Elytis was one of the most notable writers of the generations of the 30s’, an influential literary school which included Georgios Seferis, the first Greek Noble Prize winner, in Literature. He is considered one of the greatest poets of modern Greece and of the entire world.

Odysseus Elytis was born in Crete. His original surname was Alepoudelis but once he became a literary figure he changed it to Elytis to avoid relation with his family’s soap business. His surname, El-, a prefix found in many Greek words such as El-pdia (hope), El-ia (olive) and El-eutheria (freedom), -y-, a letter originating and found only in the Greek language and the suffix –tis from Greek surnames such as Πολίτης meaning citizen, was carefully constructed by the poet to designate the Greek influence. He studied chemistry and later law in the University of Athens but later dropped out as he dedicated himself to literature and poetry.

In the 1930’s Elytis made his literary debut in the magazine Νέα Γράμματα (New Letters) by publishing his first poem titled Τοῦ Αἰγαίου (Of the Aegean) under the name Elytis. In 1936 he met Nikos Gatsos, with whom he formed a strong bond of friendship. With the outbreak of the 2^nd World War, Elytis published his poetic collection Orientations. He joined the army and fought in the first line in the Greco-Italian war of 1940. His experiences inspired him to write his second poetic collection A Heroic And Funeral Chant For The Lieutenant Lost In Albania. He left Greece during the civil war and settled in France where he was introduced to the literary world of France and all its representatives.

In 1952 he returned to Greece. 7 years later he published his masterpiece Axion Esti (Ἄξιον Ἐστί, It is Worthy). A sacred moment for Hellenism. The gates of the world opened for him. The poem is the apogee of the ethical and spiritual struggles of the Greek race throughout the ages. In 1964 Mikis Theodorakis set Axion Esti to music making it popular enough for Elytis and Theodorakis to earn worldwide recognition. His entire life remained creative as he continued writing poems until 1991. His last poem was The Elegies of Oxopetras.

He was a frugal man who, in spite of his family’s close relations with politics never got actively involved with the commons. He rejected any offers to join political parties and rejected the position of honorary Academic in the Academy of Athens. He detested life associated with commerce and the acquisition of money. His poetry was involved with modern Hellenism and aimed at its spiritual and ethical revival. His poems were translated into 11 languages. Aside from his numerous poetic collections, Elytis translated works, mostly from French and painted.

In 1979 Odysseus Elytis was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature “for his poetry, which, against the background of Greek tradition, depicts with sensuous strength and intellectual clear-sightedness modern man’s struggle for freedom and creativeness”.

Bibliography

1. Odysseus Elytis – Biographical. Nobelprize.org. August 8, 2016. Web.
2. Οδυσσέας Ελύτης – Βιογραφία. Sansimera.gr. August 8, 2016. Web.
3. ”Odysseus Elytis.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 8 Aug. 2016.

Lycurgus

King of Sparta, Philosopher, Lawmaker (c900 BC – 800 BC)

Lycurgus has always been an enigmatic figure whose entire life and work is shrouded by a veil of mystery. From antiquity he was regarded as a mythical figure whose name hided many glorious statesmen of Sparta under it. Nothing about him can be said without doubt. Nevertheless, his large influence on the political system of Sparta is certain.

The most important information about Lycurgus is drawn from the works of Plutarch. He was a descendent of the royal family of the Procleides. He travelled to Crete, Egypt and Libya where he studied their political systems. Lycurgus was Sparta’s greatest lawmaker, legislator and political reformer, responsible for Sparta’s militaristic political system which made Sparta Athens’ greatest rival. His political system put an end to the civil wars of Sparta and weakened the power of the King by giving power to a series new ruling classes. The Assembly of Elders (Γερουσία), composed of 28 members over the age of 60 was the Senate. It had the power of a legislative body similar to modern days’ Parliament. The Apella was a democratic deliberative assembly composed of men who were over 30 years old. They would gather and discuss multiple subjects regarding the commons. They could also accept or reject laws passed by the Assembly of Elders for discussion by voting. The Ephors were 5 men who shared the power of the state together with the King.

The Lygurgean system focused on discipline of the people from young age and their inurement. Men and women became responsible citizens and capable guardians of their city, placing above all their freedom and what was best for their city, even if that was unjust. Men became acquainted with the art of war and learned to master it. Young people learned to respect and subjugate to their elders while agamy was contemned. Lycurgus also banned the use of foreign currencies and is considered to have introduced the works of Homer to Sparta.

When his work was finished, Lycurgus went to the oracle of Delphi, to assure himself from God Apollo on his laws’ value. He was told from the Oracle: “You came, Lycurgus, to my temple, full of wealth and beauty. Loved by Zeus and the rest of the Olympians. I wonder, as a God or as a man must I give you a divination? But as a God I consider, Lycurgus, to address you!”.

In general, the Spartan political system was mixed with oligarchy, monarchy and elements of democracy. Still, it rendered Sparta one of the most powerful city-states in all of Greece for hundreds of years. Throughout these years, the Lycurgean system remained almost intact, making the Spartan citizens loyal and obedient soldiers of their homeland. After his death, the Spartans built a temple in his honour where every year rituals were performed in his memory. They also invented a celebration called the Lycurgides which were celebrated once every year.

The political system that Lycurgus established was “divine”. According to Plutarch, its ultimate goal was to rid people’s soul of lubricity, idolatry, illogical fear, superstitions and ignorance and aimed at the catharsis and lytrosis of the peoples’ soul. For only then would men and women be truly free and only in freedom would man achieve somatic, psychic, intellectual and spiritual well-being. A political system devoid of fallacies and illusions meant that its people did to need to struggle for survival. The eudaimonism of a city came about only when its people were virtuous and self-reliant.

Bibliography

1. Gravingger, Petros. Pythagoras and the Mystic Teachings of Pythagoreanism. Ideotheatron Dimeli: Athens, 1998. Print.
2. Lycurgus. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
3. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Lycurgus” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 7, August. 2016.

Pheidias

Sculptor, Painter, Architect, Mathematician, Philosopher (c480 BC – 430 BC)

The greatest Greek sculptor who ever lived, initiated into the mysteries of the Greek Meditation (Ἑλληνικὸς Διαλογισμός), flourished during the Golden Age of Pericles when he sculpted the Parthenon Marbles, the statue of Athena Parthenos and the statue of Zeus in Olympia and was glorified as a god of sculpture by his contemporaries.

In Ancient Greece, sculptures occupied a very special place in the Greek Meditation. The sculptor, being an initiate of the mysteries studied nature, communicated with it and acted as the intermediate between the statue and the observer. Sculptures acted as powerful initiative tools in the mysteries. The sculptures did not move and did not speak. They were immobile and silent. This gave the observer unlimited time to study the sculpture using “the soul’s eye” (ψυχῆς ὄμμα). Automatically, the observer’s soul would jump from the aesthetic field, the mortal world, to the noetic field, the world of the Divine once he/she conceived the original, the prototype idea which the artist, working in the noetic field, had received from the Divine Beings and had crafted the sculpture based on that idea. That idea was transmitted to the observer, transformed into an optic presentation and worked in their soul. The sculpture and the observer communicated with each other when the observer resonated to the sculpture’s frequency. Only in antiquity did sculpture reach such perfection where artists such as Pheidias could represent the prototype ideas in the aesthetic field and bring about equilibrium to the soul.

Pheidias’ works such as the statue of Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon, the statue of Athena Promachos between the Propylaia and the Erechtheion, and the statue of Zeus in Olympia possessed such powers. The statue of Athena Parthenos was 12m high. The unclothed parts of the statue were made of ivory, the clothing was made of gold and the inside was made of wood. Wood and ivory are poor electrical conductors but good conductors of energies from higher spiritual levels. The opposite is true for gold. The statue, together with all the rest statues around it were not merely for decoration (the term statue in the English language is inaccurate and misleading). They were symbols that spoke to the observer. Pheidias’ masterpiece narrated the story of the soul, which he had conceived from the Gods.

The same symbology was present in the statue of Zeus in Olympia, one of the 7 Wonders of the World, which was also chryselephantine. Other notable masterpieces of Pheidias include the Parthenon Marbles, the most beautiful sculptures which decorated the monument of Athens, the chryselephantine statue of Athena of Pellene and Athena of Elis, the bronze statue of Athena of Lemnos, statues of Hermes, Aphrodite and Apollo, numerous exquisite statues of men and heroes (ἀνδρῶν τε ἡρώων τε), namely the apotheosis of Miltiades in the Battle of Marathon, Amazons, as well as numerous paintings.

All of the Ancient Greek artists, particularly Pheidias were influenced by the Divine in order to create masterpieces of insuperable beauty which enabled the soul of those who observed them and deciphered their meaning have contact with the Divine planes. Lesa quoted on Pheidias “This great craftsman of the Olympian Gods presents himself as an Olympian as well, superior to all other craftsmen of Greece. Because this God of Greek sculpture, like Zeus, whom he depicted beautifully in his magnificence, gives the impression of a wonderful spirit, which dominated the Greek art, just like the Parthenon dominated the Acropolis… ”. Today the symbol φ of the golden ratio is named after the first letter of his name. Pheidias used the golden ratio in his sculptures. The Parthenon is also built according to the golden ratio.

Bibliography

1. Altani. Arritoi Logoi Kentauroi, Amazones, Medousa. Georgiades: Athens, 2005. Print.
2. Pheidias. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.