Marinos Charbouris

Engineer (1729 – 1781)

A giant of engineering, Marinos Charbouris, also known as Charvouris, was born in Argostoli of Cephallenia which was under the rule of the Venetian Republic. He studied mathematics in Bolognia and engineering in Bonn. In 1761 he joined the army of Maria Theresa , ruler of the Habsburg Monarchy, and subsequently the army of Catherine the Great as an engineer.

However, Charbouris is not known for his studies nor for his services in any army. He is known as the man to have moved the heaviest object in history at the time; a 2.000 ton monolith over a distance of 20 kilometers using a system of advanced engineering and mechanics.

Around 1770, Catherine the Great wanted to erect a statue of Peter the Great at the centre of Saint Petersburg, Russia. Other engineers suggested using smaller rocks to assemble a large one, a plan that would fail because the rocks would not sustain the statue itself. Charvouris was informed of a massive monolith lying in Finland and went to study it himself. After informing the empress of the monolith, fellow engineers mocked Charbouris for believing it was an impossible feat. Charbouris managed to persuade the empress and in 1770 he set out to achieve the impossible.

Around the rock in Finland, Charbouris assembled a workforce of 400 workers and created a small village. He created 12 enormous cranes which were used to lift the boulder and place it unto a mattress of grass. The boulder was passed on a series of grills which would be used to transport it. To achieve the transportation, Charbouris used two large beams adjacent to each other like rails with bronze spheres on top. Over these male grips were placed the female grips – two other beams without spheres. The boulder was placed on top of this contraption so that when the workers pulled, the spheres underneath would slide the massive rock. Carts full of tools were transported along with the boulder while a drummer stood atop of it to give the men the rhythm of movement. Every now and then the boulder would stop moving and more beams would be placed in front so as to continue the transportation.

In order to turn the boulder left or right to he right direction Charbouris came up with another engineering feat. He created two round impellers which one on top of the other with bronze spheres in the middle, similarly to the beams he used. Simultaneously, Charbouris created a dock which functioned as a swimming pool, being able to pump water in and out so that the boulder wouldn’t sink.

The boulder arrived successfully in St. Petersburgh where Charbouris and his men were greeted with applause and cheers from the people. Scrulptor Étienne Maurice Falconet would work on the boulder to erect the statue of Peter the Great. Charbouris greatest feat as he himself claimed was that all of his 400 men returned alive and safe. For his work Catherine the Great appointed him Lieutenant-Colonel of the Russian school of officers. In 1779 he returned to Cefalonia where he drained large areas of land using state-of-the-art engineering to cultivate cotton, sugar canes and indigo to great success. Charbouris’s monumental work remains an astonishing engineering feat to this day.

Bibliography

1. Mortoglou. ”An Essay … of 2.000 tons”. Rizospastis. Web. 11 Sep. 2016.
2. Tasios, Theodosis. ”Three Modern Greek Mechanic Heralds”. Archaiologia. Web. 11 Sep. 2016.
3. TCGDSDA. Βράχος 2000 Τόνων Ταξιδεύει 20 χλμ. part 1/2. Youtube. December 10, 2009. Web. September 11, 2016.
4. TCGDSDA. Βράχος 2000 Τόνων Ταξιδεύει 20 χλμ. part 2/2. Youtube. December 10, 2009. Web. September 11, 2016.

 

 

Franciscus Maurolycus

Mathematician, Astronomer, Scholar (1494 – 1575)

His surname Maurolycos (Μαυρόλυκος) means “Black Wolf” in Greek, indicating his Greek descent. His parents fled from Constantinople after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 to Messina, Italy where Francesco Maurolyco was born during the dawn of the Renaissance. Maurolyco was an important representative of the scientific Renaissance who promoted mathematics and astronomy.

The first years of his career he worked as a scholar, teaching mathematics to the sons of the hegemonic family of Palermo and in the Lyceum of Messina. As professor of mathematics in the University of Messina, Maurolycus taught theory of music. Later in his life he devoted himself in writing original mathematical and astronomical treatises, the most important of which are Grammatica rudimenta, Cosmographia, Arithmetica, De Sphaera Liber Unus, De momentis aequalibus, Photismi de Lumine et Umbra, Diaphana, De conspiciliis, Opuscula Mathematica and Problemata Mechanica.

These treatises contain Maurolycus’ original works on the conic sections, the theory of numbers, numerous astronomical observations such as Maurolyco’s supernova (renamed to Tycho’s supernova), geometry and trigonometry. He studied the physics of the rainbow, optics, reflection and refraction of the light, examined the mechanical problems of Archimedes, worked on the quadratic equations and solid geometry and provided the first proof of mathematical induction.

Maurolyco worked on the restoration of ancient Greek mathematical texts. He completed the restoration of books IV and V of Apollonius’ of Perga Conics, translated into Latin the works of Euclid, Archimedes, Theodosius, Menelaus, Autolycus, Apollonius of Perga and wrote commentaries on pre-existing mathematical treatises.

Mathematics and astronomy were not his only interests. He published a collection of poems called Rime, wrote a book on the history of Sicily entitled Sicanicarum reum compendium, served as head of the mint of Messina and was appointed chief of the fortification projects of Messina. He was rightfully called “the brightest light of Sicily” by his contemporaries.

Bibliography

1. “Mavrolykos, Fragiskos”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1926. Print.
2. Francesco Maurolyco. School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St. Andrews, Scotland. History.mcs.st-and.ac.uk. Web. September 9, 2016.

Aeschylus

Tragedian (c.525 BC – c.455 BC)

The greatest tragedian who ever lived; together with Sophocles and Euripides they form the holy trinity of tragic poetry. Aeschylus was the creator and main reformer of the Greek drama who gave it the meaning and glory for which it is renowned. A titanic innovator, a remarkable musician, poet, architect and director, none of his successors ever reached the level of his capacity, ingenuity and wisdom.

Prior to him, there was only one actor on stage, who portrayed various characters by changing masks and could only either engage in monologue or converse with the chorus. Aeschylus changed this by adding a second and then a third actor on stage thus enriching the dialogue and evolving the theatre to whole new level. According to Aristotle he reduced the role of the chorus and gave the primary role to the leading character. He decorated the set, worked as a choreographer, composed the music, designed the costumes, created the characters and acted himself. The spectators felt themselves surrounded by the Gods watching the divine events.

The master tragedian combined the art of theatre with philosophy. His primary theme in most of his surviving plays is justice. He wanted to convey the message that justice has many components. As such, just characters frequently come into conflict with one another. But righteousness never takes sides. As the great tragedian said “τὸ δίκαιον μεταβαίνει» (justice moves). Unjust acts give birth to crimes and the only remedy to this perpetual generation of evil is virtue, which the Greeks had imprinted in their souls with the words Μηδὲν ἄγαν (nothing in excess).

Aeschylus wrote about 100 plays. According to the Suda lexicon Aeschylus won first place 28 times first place. His plays were inspired from mythology, theogony, the Orphic myths of the Argonauts, Homer and Hesiod as well as from his personal experiences during the Battles of Marathon and Salamis, in which he fought bravely together with his brother. Another important source of his plays was the mystery schools. 7 of his plays survive today:

• Suppliants (Hiketides) is about the Danaids, who flee with their father to Argos to avoid their forced marriage with their cousins. The sense of justice, which for the Greeks is a synonymous to the “rhythm of life” and the “harmony of the worlds”, is explored in depth by the poet. It was part of a trilogy and is one of Aeschylus’ oldest tragedies since it follows the archaic structure.
• Persians (Persai) is a play of triumph that glorifies the Battle of Salamis. It is concurrently a monumental work that immortalizes the Greek resistance against the Persian Empire and their love for freedom.
• Seven Against Thebes is a beautiful yet dramatic story that deals with the rivalry and clash of Eteocles and Polyneices, the two sons of Oedipous and the subsequent downfall of the Theban royal family. The play explores the themes of fratricide, patricide, consanguinity and divine justice. It was the third and last of the Oedipous trilogy.
• The Oreseetia trilogy was comprised of three interconnected plays Agamemnon, Choephoroi and Eumenides. In the first one the tragedian dramatizes the assassination of Agamemnon by his wife Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus. In the second play Orestes murders his mother Clytemnestra as a vengeance for his father’s death. The third play of the trilogy involves the Gods, who vindicate Orestes for his matricide. The Erinnyes, the “Furies”, are transformed into the benevolent Eumenides, the “Kind Goddesses and harmony is restored. The Oresteia is widely considered as the greatest tragic poetry ever written.
• Prometheus Bound was the play in which Aeschylus revealed the secrets of the Mystery Schools. Prometheus is punished by Zeus for handing down fire (knowledge) to mankind from the Gods. Through this knowledge man became an inventor. Power (Zeus) and Freedom (Prometheus) clash with one another with Prometheus – the freedom that is harmonized with the laws of the universe – taking over. Prometheus is the embodiment of all the struggles, pain and passions of humanity. Like the former, it too was part of a trilogy.

Aeschylus was among the chosen ones of the Muses, to whom they revealed themselves. Like Homer, Hesiod, Orpheus, Pindar, Euripides, Sophocles, etc, the Muses stimulated Aeschylus’ soul, giving him the ability to narrate and glorify the heroic labours of men and Gods so that to act as a paedagogue to the viewers who witnessed his plays. The poet acted as a channel to deliver the Muses’ optic presentations to the spectators, who received the information through the symbolic actions of the heroes and the Gods. This would provide the best example and the most powerful method to bring the mortal man in contact with the Divine. Aeschylus’ plays were not for money or for entertainment. Decoding and understanding the divine information led to lytrosis and eventually the conquest of immortality. This was the reason why Aeschylus and all his contemporary playwrights were described as sages. This was the reason why ancient theatre had therapeutic and didactic purposes.

Bibliography

1. “Aeschylus”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
2. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Aeschylus”. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. September 8, 2016.
3. Tziropoulou – Eustathiou, Anna. The Destruction of the Greek Libraries. Georgiades: Athens, 2014. Print.

Nicephorus Lytras

Painter (1832 – 1904)

One of the greatest Greek painters in modern history and the main representative of the School of Munich. Nicephorus Lytras was born in Tynos as the son of a sculptor. At the age of 18 he went to study art in Athens under the supervision of Ludwig Thiersch, who acknowledged young Lytras’ talent and took him as an assistant hagiographer in the church of St. Nicodemus of Russia.

During the following years, Lytras earned a scholarship to study art in the University of Munich. There he met the influential Karl von Piloty and his compatriot painter Nikolaos Gyzis. His primary influences were Greek history and mythology. His works Execution of Patriarch Gregory V of Constantinople, The Blowing up of Nasuh Ali Pasha’s Flagship by Kanaris, Antigone in front of dead Polynikes, Medea and Penelope provide a prime example of his authentic personality which remained intact all those years throughout his life. In fact, Piloty’s admiration for Lytras’ paintings was so great that he called Lytras a direct descendent of Apelles. Upon returning to Greece he joined the faculty of Fine Arts in the University of Athens, which he served for 38 consecutive years. Almost all of the Greek painters of the first decades of the 20^th century were students of Lytras.

Aside from historical and mythological themes, Lytras’ most prominent theme in his paintings is the simplicity and beauty of modern every-day life. The painter depicted the little things that surrounded people’s every-day lives mixed with the Greek element. These small events are what form the human existence and which Lytras immortalized with profound depth and uniqueness. The figures appear silent but full of expression and feelings painted in their faces. Such paintings include The Kiss, Return from the Bazar, The Greek Sale, A Moment of Rest, The Milkman, The Egg of Easter, The Waiting, Carols, The Naughty Grandchild, the Cookery, Motherhood and Gril by the River. Notable portraits painted by Lytras are King Otto, Queen Amalia, Chris the Nigger, Th. Deliyannis, Kalligas, George Stavrou, Serpieres, Rizaris, Michael Bodas and himself. Many of his paintings were highly acclaimed and awarded with the highest honours.

As a painter, Nicephorus Lytras cannot be strictly categorized under one movement nor can his students. His art is of no need for long pseudophilosophic wordiness or intricate explanations. As Plato said: “Art is the mirror of the soul”, and for this reason, Lytras’ paintings speak to one’s soul, filling them with happiness.

Bibliography

1. “Lytras, Nikiforos”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
2. ΝΙΚΗΦΟΡΟΣ ΛΥΤΡΑΣ. Texni-zoi.blogspot.gr. Web. September 2, 2016.
3. Νικηφόρος Λύτρας: Ο «γενάρχης» της νεοελληνικής ζωγραφικής. Tvxs.gr. Web. September 2, 2016.

Apollonius of Rhodes

Librarian (295 BC – 190 BC)

Apollonius is one of the chief representatives of epic poetry of the Hellenistic era. During the reigns of Ptolemy II and Ptolemy III Apollonius served as chief librarian and scholar of the Library of Alexandria. His best known work is the Argonautika (Jason and the Argonauts), an epic based on the homonymous Orphic myth that tells the story of Jason and the Argonauts on their quest to find the Golden Fleece.

In spite of his name, Apollonius was born in Alexandria and studied in the Museum of Alexandria under the influence of Callimachus, who would later become his greatest adversary. From a young age, Apollonius wrote his epic Argonautika and presented it in a poetic contest. After losing to his teacher Callimachus, Apollonius fled in disgrace to Rhodes, where he became an honorary citizen and founded a school of rhetoric. While in Rhodes he revised and perfected his work, ultimately gaining fame and prestige among his fellow citizens. He then returned to Alexandria where he regained his position as chief librarian of Alexandria, after succeeding Eratosthenes, until his death.

Recent evidence by numerous writers and researchers, most notably by Henriette Mertz, now suggest that Jason and the Argonauts did exist thousands before the age of Homer and that they crossed the Atlantic Ocean and sailed to the Americas in search of gold. Henriette Mertz, known for her works on Homer recreated the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts by travelling herself multiple times in the Americas, visiting the places that the Argonauts had did using Orpheus’ myths and Apollonius’ book as a guide. Her remarkable findings, in conjunction with all the other findings of her fellow researchers evidently show that the Argonauts’ voyage was a quest to find the secret of gold and bring it back to Greece. Gold was allegorically portrayed as a golden fleece because sheep skin was used to catch gold nuggets from rivers in which they were found. Their journey can be compared to that of the two Byzantine monks who travelled to China in search for silk.

Back then, Apollonius was not a homo unius libri, as he came to be known today (for his work Argonautika). He was a polymath, a writer and scientist who compiled several scientific works, none of which survives. Other works include poems such as On Archilochus, On Zenodotus, historical works such as Ktiseis, which is about the foundation of cities like Alexandria and Rhodes and annotations on the works of Hesiod, Antimachus and Homer, by whom he was heavily influenced.

Bibliography

1. “Apollonios o Rhodios”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.
2. Apollonius of Rhodes. Argonautika. Kaktos: Athens, 1999. Print.
3. Lahanas, Michael. Apollonius of Rhodes. Mlahanas.de. Web. August 30, 2016.
4. Ayfantis, Georgios. Anthropos & Epistimi – Enimerosis: Prehistory and History of Man, Science & Civilization. Athens: Hellinikon Selas, 2009. Print.
5. Mertz, Henriette. The Wine Dark Sea. Athens: Nea Thesis, 1995. Print.

Chrysippus

Philosopher (281 BC – 204 BC)

Chrysippus was a post-Socratic Stoic philosopher of the Hellenistic period. He was also an athlete, orator and physicist. He was student of Cleanthes and Zeno of Citium, the founder of the Stoic School of philosophy, whom he succeeded as chairman of the Stoic School. His contribution in Stoic philosophy was so great that he surpassed his teacher and founder of the school and earned the title of “second founder” of the Stoic School. It was said that “Without Chrysippus there would have been no Stoa” while Carnedaes, the fourth chairman of the School said “If Chrysippus had not existed, neither would I”. In general, the philosopher was involved with 4 branches of philosophy: epistemology, metaphysics, logic and ethics.

Chrysippus defined “presentation” as a heteriosis (ἑτερείωσις), meaning the change caused to the soul by the assimilation of information and knowledge from the beings. He believed that the soul was a tabula rasa whose content was enriched by this assimilation. Chrysippus argued that perception shows a person’s inner state and energies. Perception gives birth to memories and memories create experience. By means of syllogism conceptions are created. Conceptions which are naturally created, without deliberation, are termed prolepsis (προλήψεις) by Chrysippus. Conceptions which are created as a result of our own instruction are called simply conceptions.

Metaphysics were of particular interest to him. He was a monist. He believed that the primary substance of beings is one. The world and all the beings are created by God. God is the most perfect, good and philanthropic being because he is created of the most perfect material and is the soul of the world that rules over it. Chrysippus accepted that God is omnipotent and the universes are to the world that which the soul is to the body of man. Because God is the soul, the nous (intellect), the logos, the nature, the destiny, the providence, the common Law that that gives spirit and life to every being. The philosopher said that while man’s soul is found everywhere in his body, its dominating part called the hegemonic (ἡγεμονικόν) resides on the same place where the soul of the universe is so that when God creates life he uses a part of himself. Everything according to Chrysippus is defined by a purpose.

Chrysippus expanded the science of Logic most than any other philosopher of the Stoic School. He examined several elements in Logic such as hypothetical and disjunctional syllogisms, complex judgments, proofs, arguments, propositions, modality and sophisms. Moreover, Chrysippus advanced propositional logic by introducing basic inference schemata, the basis of the inference rules.

Concerning Chrysippus’ teachings on ethics, he proclaimed “unquestionably living according to Nature” (Ὁμολογουμένως τῆ φύσει ζῆν). He considered wisdom as the common root of all four virtues: justice, common sense, phronesis and bravery as well as the science of all human and divine things. For him, the quintessence of a perfect man is the sage, who is the only one with true eudaimonism (happiness). His virtues are irremovable and can only be taken away by phrenopathy. The sage’s eudaimonism is equal to the eudaimonism of the divine, Zeus, because the sage is rid of sadness and passions, always acting right. Hence the philosopher rejected the equality of man and consequently democracy and accepted the supremacy of the philosophers over the rest of the people who were totally ignorant of their ignorance. He considered the mass foolish and insane. He did not care about what they said or did nor was it of any worth to him as he characteristically said “If I paid any attention to them, I would not become a philosopher”.

With his excellent dialectic arguments, his oratory skills, his vast bibliography – he wrote 705 books – and wisdom, Chrysippus defended the School’s name from its rivals and disseminated the Stoic philosophy throughout the ages. He was bestowed political privileges by the Athenians and a statue of him was built in Ceramicus. It is said that it was, however, so short that it was overshadowed by the rest of them and was called Cryptippus (Κρύψιππος). He allegedly died of excessive laughter and was succeeded by Poseidonius.

Bibliography

1. “Chrysippus”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.
2. “Chrysippus”. Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Web. August 29, 2016.
3. Pleures, Konstantinos. Greek Philosophers. Athens: Hilektron Publications, 2014. Print.

Ibycus

Lyric Poet (6^th century BC)

He was born in Reggium of Southern Italy during the 6th century BC. He was of aristocratic descent; his father was also a poet who served in the courtyard of Polycrates of Samos. Ibycus was one of the nine great Lyric Poets of Ancient Greece. It is estimated that he wrote 7 poetic collections, of which only 40 lines survive from scattered fragments of his works. He is the creator of the encomium, a hymn of commemoration.

Ibycus’ most important poems are the erotic ones, in which love dominates as a theme. The theme of love is so great that in his poem Diary of an Unseen April Odysseus Elytis anecdotically characterizes Ibycus as an erotomaniac. Most of his poems are original and sentimental. They frequently express the fear of falling in love with someone or describe the beauty of youth. He seems to have been influenced by two lyric poets Stesichorus and Sappho as both Stesichorus and Ibycus wrote choral lyrics on mythological narratives.

Other elements found within Ibycus’ poetry are the vivid imagery and symbolism. In one of his poems quinces represent the erotic awakening, the “unwalked fairy garden” represents innocence while growing vines symbolize youth. Other poems of his are religiously themed. The dialect of his poems is Epic with Aeolic and Doric elements.

Ibycus created the sambuca, a musical stringed instrument thought to be a small triangular harp whose music accompanied the poet’s reciting while according to Suda Lexicon he also created the ibycinon, a similar musical instrument. He is the founder of the Ibycean Scheme, a grammatical innovation found in his poems.

Bibliography

1. “Ibycus”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946: Print.
2. ΙΒΥΚΟΣ 40. – Απόσπασμα 286 Page. Greek-language.gr. Web. August 26, 2016.
3. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Ibycus”. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 26 August. 2016.

Georgios Karaiskakis

Hero of the Greek War of Independence (1780 – 1827)

Karaiskakis is one of the most renowned figures of the Greek War of Independence. He was known by the nickname “son of the nun” and was originally a klepht serving in Ali Pasha’s courtyard in Ioannina. With the start of the Greek War of Independence in 1821, Karaiskakis partook actively in the war as General of the Army in Central Greece, becoming Lieutenant General and ultimately Field Marshal.

Karaiskakis’ operations for the liberation of Greece began in 1820 when he fought together with Ali Pasha against the Turkish forces in Ioannina. One year later he hoisted the flag in Tzoumerca thus spreading the message of the revolution in the neighbouring villages. In 1822 he became captain of the Agrapha. He and his men occupied the lands of Agrinion where they gave a fierce battle against the Turkish forces who sought to descend to Central Greece. The following 2 years he got involved in the Civil War.

In 1825 he fought in Agrapha with an army of 3000 men and in 126 he was appointed General of the Army in Central Greece. He led his army, this time consisting of 680 men in the Siege of Acropolis where he fought with the utmost bravery together with Nikolaos Kriezotis, Ioannis Gouras, Charles Fabvier and Ioannis Makriyannis. In the same year he fought victoriously in the Battle of Arachova and reclaimed the surrounding lands. From the 2000 Turkish soldiers only 300 survived. He then built a pyramid out of the 1500 skulls of Turkish and Albanians he had killed. By 1827 Karaiskakis had liberated all of Central Greece excluding Messolonghi, Vonitsa and Naupaktos.

His unfortunate death in 1827 proved to be detrimental for the war. The Greeks lost the Battle of Analatos and their base in Acropolis. Karaiskakis death was lamented by all Greeks, notably by Theodoros Kolokotronis who, upon being informed of his death, he “sat down and cried like a woman”. Karaiskakis was a genuine patriot described as an intuitive military genius, a valuable asset to the Greek War of Independence who, in spite of having no education at all possessed extraordinary leadership skills. Thanks to him and his army of brave men, the Greek flag waved proudly above the villages of Central Greece once more after nearly 400 years.

Bibliography

1. “Karaiskakis, Georgios”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.
2. ”Γ. Καραϊσκάκης: ”Ρώτησα τον μπούτσον μου και μου είπε να μη σε προσκυνήσω””. mixanitouxronou.gr. 25 Mar. 2015. Web. 25 Aug. 2016.

Theodore Metochites

Statesman, Writer, Scholar (1270 – 1332)

Theodore Metochites was Prime Minister of the Byzantine Empire during the reign of Emperor Andronikos Palaiologos from 1282 to 1328. He was renowned for his knowledge, which he had acquired during his studies in Asia Minor as a youth and was considered in his own timeline as one of the greatest scholars and scientists of the Byzantine Empire.

Metochites’ involvement in politics began from an early age. Throughout his career he occupied many high-rank positions of power including General Logothete, involved with taxation and finance duties, Logothete of the Household, involved with fiscal and judicial duties and ultimately Grand Logothete, the highest rank of the hierarchy involved with the co-ordination and supervision of the government. As Grand Logothete he founded a library in Constantinople that was open to the public.

Like most Byzantine scholars, Metochites refrained from writing mostly original treatises. His most important work is Hypomnematismoi kai Semeioseis Gnomikai in which the writer makes personal comments and annotations on more than 80 different Ancient Greek and contemporary writers, on 120 treatises with philosophical and historical content namely Plato, Aristotle, Xenophon, Dion Chrysostomus and Plutarch. In the same book he explores themes such as Christian ethics and political issues. Other works include treatises on physics, physiology, poetry, rhetoric and psychology, commentaries on Plato’s Dialogues and on Aristotelian Logic.

Two are his most important treatises on astronomy: Preintroduction to Ptolemy’s Syntaxis and Elements of Astronomical Science. The books were important handbooks of astronomy containing theoretical and practical principles from Ptolemy’s books. The writer himself believed that astronomy was a science that linked man with God. With all the knowledge accumulated in his books, Metochites was able to predict solar and lunar eclipses. This knowledge was later disseminated to his students, who began a circle of astronomers, among them Nicephorus Gregoras, who presented original works in astronomy as well.

Evidently, Metochites was inspired by the Ancient Greek spirit. He devoted most of his life studying and reproducing the Ancient Greek writers. This proved to be of great importance during the laters years of the Renaissance. Because of his polymathy, is student Nicephorus Gregoras, another great philosopher of the Byzantine era, called him “living library” (ἔμψυχος βιβλιοθήκη).

Bibliography

1. Βυζαντινών Ἱστορικά. Μεγάλοι Επιστήμονες του Βυζαντίου – Θεόδωρος Μετοχίτης. Vizantinonistorika.blogspot.gr. August 24, 2016. Web.
2. Katsiaboura, Gianna. Θεόδωρος Μετοχίτης. Encyclopaedia of Hidrima Meizonos Hellenismou, Asia Minor. August 24, 2016. Web.
3. “Metochites, Theodoros”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.

Eudoxus of Cnidus

Mathematician, Astronomer, Philosopher, Inventor, Meteorologist, Geographer, Physician, Rhetorician, Lawmaker (408 BC – 355 BC)

The greatest mathematician of antiquity second to Archimedes and Apollonius of Perga. He was the one who “rescued” the ancient Greek mathematics from the dead-end they had reached after the discovery of asymmetry during the 5^th century BC. As an eminent astronomer he created the geocentric model and devised an astronomical instrument to interpret the planets’ movements. He is acknowledged worldwide as one of the greatest mathematicians who ever lived.

Eudoxus studied mathematics in Archytas’ school in Sicily and at the age of 23 he enrolled in Plato’s Academy where he studied medicine. He travelled to Egypt where he was taught astronomy by the priests of Heliopolis and later founded the Eudoxian Observatory. He returned to Greece where he founded the School of Cyzicus and a school in Athens. On Plato’s request he became a professor of sciences in Plato’s Academy and taught for most of his life, until he moved back to Cnidus and founded an observatory.

Eudoxus’ work on mathematics is titanic. He is credited by Archimedes as the founder of the Archimedean Property or Eudoxian Theorem on the Axioms of Continuity, which today dominate in modern higher mathematics. The Eudoxus Axiom forms the basis of calculus, which Eudoxus first discovered and applied and later Archimedes expanded. These axioms were later developed by Newton and Leibnitz. The discovery of the Method of Exhaustion belongs to Eudoxus. With it he was able to calculate areas and volumes of geometrical shapes which were unknown at the time. He was the first to prove that the volume of the pyramid is equal to 1/3 the volume of the prism that has the same height and base as the pyramid. In addition, he proved that the volume of the cone is 1/3 the volume of the cylinder with the same height and base.

Eudoxus perfected the analysis and synthesis in geometry, expanded the theory of proportionality and overcame the asymmetric problem that had been troubling ancient Greek mathematics, formulated the bisection principle, solved the Delian problem of the doubling of the cube using curved lines, even though unfortunately the solution was lost, developed the theory of irrational magnitudes and made important discoveries on the Theorem of the Golden Ratio. He also proved that the areas of circles are proportional to the squares of their diameter.

As a pioneer in astronomy, Eudoxus is considered the founder of mathematical astronomy. He was the first to introduce the concept of celestial bodies and explain their movement using a geometric model based on mathematic principles. With his observations of the star sky, he described the constellations, their position, the dates when the stars are visible, and the weather associated with each of their phases. He understood the need of mathematical analysis on interpreting astronomical findings. Moreover, he researched the sizes of the Sun, the Moon and the Earth, introduced the Οκταετηρίς (Octaeteris) and eight-year cycle calendar with 365 days of the year which 300 later was introduced by Julius Cesar.

His Theory of the Homocentric Spheres interpreted the movement of the planets using hippopedes, complex geometric curves, an invention of Eudoxus that formed the basis of mathematical astronomy. Using this theory he created the Homocentric Sphere System, a planetary system consisting of a number of rotating spheres depicting the 7 planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Zeus, Saturn, the Moon and the Sun. His geocentric planetary system achieved considerable acclaim, was accepted by Aristotle and by the scientific community was later perfected by his student Callipus and survived until the Renaissance. He wrote a treaty named On Velocities, which concerned the planetary movements. In his treaty Sphaeropoia Eudoxus first calculated the distances of the Sun and the Moon from Earth using his own genious methods. Eudoxus is therefore the founder of theoretical astronomy and celestial mechanics.

The introduction of mathematical axioms in geography is attributed to Eudoxus. He wrote studies on the weather, the climate and the wind. Numerous treaties concerning the climate in various places of the Earth and the zones of the globe sharing common astronomical data.

As an inventor, Eudoxus invented the planetary simulator, an instrument demonstrating the ostensible motion of the planets. It consisted of two concentric rings that when rotated simultaneously at opposite directions caused the planets to move in an octant motion. The system rested on a third ring that produced the complex orbit of the planet. His second invention, the “Spider” was a map of the celestial sphere. According to others, it was a sundial or some kind of astronomical instrument. The astrolabe was an instrument originally designed by Eudoxus and was later perfected by Hipparchus. In turn, the dioptres, instruments used for astronomical observations were perfected by Heron of Alexandria. Finally, the Pole was an instrument much more complex than Hipparchus’ astrolabe. It was a portable sundial which contained markings corresponding to the zodiac cycle. The movement of the sun caused its shadow to fall on one of the corresponding markings indicating the time, the day and the month of the year.

During his own lifetime, Eudoxus’ fame had reached its apogee. He was widely known as “Eudoxus the Endoxus” (Eudoxus the Glorious). Eratosthenes called him θεοειδῆ (God-like) and Strabo mentions him as the fourth greatest geographer. Sadly, absolutely none of Eudoxus’ works survived. Today a crater in the moon’s surface bears his name.

Bibliography

1. “Eudoxos o Knidios”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.
2. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. Ancient Greek Scientists. Athens: Georgiades, 1995. Print.
3. Kotsanas, Kostas. Ancient Greek Technology: The Inventions of the Ancient Greeks.  Pyrgos: Kostas Kotsanas, 2013. Print.
4. Koutoulas, Diamantis. The Ancient Greek Religion and the Mathematics. Thessaloniki: Psaras, 2001. Print.
5. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Eudoxus of Cnidus” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 23 August. 2016.