John III Ducas Vatatzes

Byzantine Emperor (c.1193 – 1254)

John Vatatzes was Emperor of Nicaea from 1222 to 1254. Contemporary and modern accounts place him among the greatest and most glorious Byzantine Emperors in the empire’s 1100 years of history. With his actions, he began the restoration of the Byzantine Empire’s former glory and prepared the ground for the reclaiming of Constantinople from the Latin Empire.

When Vatatzes assumed the throne of the Empire of Nicaea, the greater part of the Byzantine Empire, including Constantinople had fallen to the Latin Empire. Thus, the Emperor’s primary goal was to rid the Byzantine Empire of the Latins, reclaim Constantinople and re-establish the Byzantine Empire. He formed an alliance with Tsar Asen of Bulgaria in an effort to reclaim Constantinople. Even though the attempt was unsuccessful, Vatatzes managed to liberate a very large part of the Byzantine Empire, including all the lands of Asia Minor sans Nicomedia and the territories around Constantinople. With his strong naval forces he reclaimed the islands of Lesbos, Chios, Samos, Icaria, Kos as well as numerous other islands of the Aegean thus establishing his rule in the sea. Furthermore, he occupied Hellespontus, reclaimed Adrianopolis and annexed the Despotate of Epirus to his kingdom. In 1246 he defeated the Bulgarians and reclaimed Thessaloniki and in 1250 he signed a powerful alliance with the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Frederick II against the Latins.

The re-establishment of the Byzantine Empire which Vatatzes had envisioned was one step before realization. Unfortunately, in 1254 after suffering years from epilepsy, Vatatzes died at the age of 72 leaving his life-long dream incomplete. 7 years later Michael VIII Palaiologos would continue Vatatzes’ legacy and reclaim Constantinople from the Latins, thus fulfilling the former’s dream.

His politics were cantered on the priorities of the people. He supported the poorer classes of society and struggled to increase their living standards by giving land to the poor agriculturalists. In fact, he gave to the poor all of his wealth which he had inherited from his deceased parents. He promoted economic growth, built hospitals, nursing homes, poorhouses, libraries and. philanthropic houses. Moreover, he promoted Christianity by building temples, churches and empowering the monasteries. He fought against corruption, implemented a low taxation law, increased the exports and promoted culture. Notable scholars during his reign include George Acropolites and Nicephorus Blemmydes. Another important contribution was the fortification and restoration of the castles for the protection of the borders. The Akrites were also restored to action.

Vatatzes was an avid proponent of the unification of the two Churches and strived for its accomplishment. He was a charismatic leader, an honest and truthful man characterized by virtues, prudence and sincerity. He was far less brutal than most of his former predecessors; war was his last option whenever he had to deal with foreign enemies and always sought to deal with them peacefully through negotiations. For this reason he was called Ἐλεήμων (Eleemon, Merciful) and “Father of the Greeks”.

The people’s and the Church’s love towards him was such that half a century after his death, John Vatatzes was canonized by the Orthodox Church and is today recognized as a saint. His memory is celebrated in Greece on the 4^th of November, each year.

Bibliography

1. ΑΓΙΟΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΣ ΔΟΥΚΑΣ ΒΑΤΑΤΖΗΣ. Tripod.com. Web. Retrieved on November 2, 2016.
2. GREEKTV4E. ΓΡΑΜΜΑΤΑ ΑΓΙΟΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΣ ΒΑΤΑΤΖΗΣ. Youtube. December 14, 2013. Web. Retrieved on December 14, 2013.
3. Ο άγιος (& μεγάλος) πολιτικός: αυτοκράτορας Ιωάννης Βατάτζης. O-nekros.blogspot.bg. November 3, 2011. Web. Retrieved on November 3, 2016.
4. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. John III Ducas Vatatzes. Britannica.com. Web. Retrieved on November 2, 2016.

Odysseus Androutsos

Hero of the Greek War of Independence (1788 – 1825)

Androutsos was a chieftain of the Greek War of Independence. In terms of his military skills he is placed third, behind Theodoros Kolokotronis and Georgios Karaiskakis. Today he is celebrated as one of the national heroes of Greece as well as one of the protagonistic figures of the Greek War of Independence.

At the age of 4, Androutsos’ father, who had participated with Lambros Katsonis in a rebel against the Turks, was beheaded. Young Odysseus grew up in Ali Pasha’s court, where he was trained to become one of Ali Pasha’s personal bodyguards. At the age of 15, he had done so. He was appointed chief of Sterea Hellada by Ali Pasha and was in charge of eradicating all the klephts of Attica. His love for freedom, however, placed in on the first lines of the Greek War of Independence.

Androutsos was initiated into the Society of Friends in 1818 and in 1821, he led a campaign in Sterea Hellada to raise the Greeks, passing from Evrytania and Amphissa and gathering heroes by his side to fight together. In 1821, Odysseus Androutsos together with Panourgias and Dyovouniotis faced Omer Vrioni’s army of 8000 men in the Chani of Gravia, with an army of just 118 men. With just 2 casualties according to Spyridon Trikoupis, the Greeks defeated the Ottoman army and stopped Vrioni’s descent to Peloponnesus. Historian Paparrigopoulos wrote that on that day, Androutsos literally saved the War. The victorious Battle of Gravia is one of the most glorious battles during the Greek War of Independence; its decisive outcome was a result of Androutsos’ brilliant strategic thinking. Moreover, it enforced spiritually all the fellow Greek freedom fighters.

In 1822 he was appointed chieftain of Sterea Hellada by the Greeks and he began fortifying the Acropolis while in 1823 he halted the campaign of Yusuf Perkofchal Pasha to Viotia. He saved Messolongi from an impending siege, founded two schools in Athens and cleared the lands of Sterea Hellada from the forces of Kiose Mechmet. His fame was such that philhellenes from Europe came to Greece to meet and work with him, most notably Lord Byron and Edward Trelawney.

Odysseus passed to immortality in 1825 after being brutally tortured and assassinated by Greeks because of hatred toward him by the Greek political establishment. His premature death deprived Greece of one of its most charismatic leaders, flaming patriots and military geniuses of the Greek War of Independence.

Bibliography

1. “Androutsos, Odysseas”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
2. Οδυσσέας Ανδρούτσος. Sansimera.gr. Web. Retrieved on October 30, 2016.

Bias of Priene

Judge (6^th century BC)

Bias was a poet, philosopher and statesman widely renowned for his rhetorical skills and his strong sense of justice. He was one of the Seven Sages of Ancient Greece who flourished in Priene during the 6^th century BC.

Few things are known about Bias’ life and work. His biography was written by Diogenes Laertius. As a judge, he would take only just cases. As poet, he wrote a poem composed of 2000 lines as well as numerous others which have been lost. As a statesman, Bias was never actually involved with politics on a practical scale. Nevertheless, he was involved in the salvation of his country from its siege by Alyattes, king of Lydia using an ingenious trick that he came up with that outwitted the king. In addition, he served as advisor of kings and generals concerning administrative and strategic subjects.

Bias is most renowned today for his sayings, which reflect his wisdom and sense of justice. Perhaps his most famous one is «Οἱ πλεῖστοι ἄνθρωποι κακοί» (Most men are evil). For this reason, Bias considered democracy an unsuitable political system. Other of his sayings include:

«Ἀνάξιον ἄνδρα μὴ ἐπαίνει διὰ πλοῦτον» – Do not honour the rich if he is a man without values.

«Ἄκουε πολλά» – Listen to many.

«Βραδέως ἐγχείρει· ὃ δ᾽ ἂν ἄρξῃ, διαβεβαιοῦ» – Be slow in considering, but resolute in action.

«Κτῆσαι ἐν μὲν νεότητι εὐπραξίαν, ἐν δὲ τῷ γήρᾳ σοφίαν. Ἕξεις ἔργῳ μνήμην, καιρῷ εὐλάβειαν, τρόπῳ γενναιότητα, πόνῳ ἐγκράτειαν, φόβῳ εὐσέβειαν, πλούτῳ φιλίαν, λόγῳ πειθώ, σιγῇ κόσμον, γνώμῃ δικαιοσύνην, τόλμῃ ἀνδρείαν, πράξει δυναστείαν, δόξῃ ἡγεμονίαν» – In your youth, seek to earn the means of a comfortable life, in your old age, wisdom. With your work you will acquire memory, with circumstances, respect, with your behaviour, bravery, with your efforts, temperance, with your fears, euseby, with wealth, friendship, with logos, persuasion, with silence, ornaments, with mind, justice, with boldness, gallantry, with your actions, power, with your good name, authority.

«Φρόνησιν ἀγάπα» – Love prudence.

«Πείσας λάβε, μὴ βιασάμενος» – Accept of things, having procured them by persuasion, not by force.

«Λάλει καίρια» – Speak when the time is right.

«Ὅ,τι ἂν ἀγαθὸν πράσσῃς, θεούς. μὴ σεαυτὸν αἰτιῶ» – Whatever good fortune befalls you, attribute it to the gods.

It is said that Bias died in old age in the court during pleading of one of his clients. The epitaph on his tomb, as quoted by Diogenes Laertius writes:

Beneath this stone lies Bias, who was born

In the illustrious Prienian land,

The glory of the whole Ionian race.

Bibliography

1. “Bias of Priene”. Wikiquote. Wikiquote.org. Web. Retrieved on October 28, 2016.
2. Bias of Priene. Livius.org. Web. Retrieved on October 27, 2016.
3. Pleures, Konstantinos. The persecution of the best elements of society. Athens: Hilektron publications, 2013. Print.
4. Seven Sages Series: the wisdom of Bias of Priene. Baringtheaegis.blogspot.bg. July 7, 2015. Web. Retrieved on October 28, 2016.

Angelos Sikelianos

Poet (1884 – 1951)

The Greek postage stamp of 1982 printed by the Hellenic Democracy depicts Angelos Sikelianos, whom Nobel Prize laureate Georgios Seferis called “the master of our voice”, commemorating one of Greece’s most celebrated poets and playwrights of the 20^th century.

Like most of his contemporary literary figures, Sikelianos abandoned his law studies in Athens seeking spiritual cultivation in the works of Homer, Pindar, Orpheus, Aeschylus, as well as the works of philosophers like Plato and Pythagoras, who imbued him with the immortal ancient Greek spirit. His first poetic collection was published in 1909. It was called Ἀλαφροΐσκιωτος (The Moonstruck) and it was a major success in the literary cycles, considered today as a landmark of modern Greek literature. The following poems that he published were The Consciousness of my Land (1915), The Consciousness of my Race (1916), The Consciousness of my Wife (1916) and The Consciousness of my Faith (1917) as well as the poetic collections Easter of the Greeks and Mother of God. All of his poems are characterized by a deep sense of Hellenism, the Hellenic ideals and religion.

During the Axis occupation of Greece in 1944, Sikelianos partook actively in the resistance against the German axis. His poem Ἠχῆστε οἱ Σάλπιγγες (Sound the Salpinges) was delivered during the funeral of Kostis Palamas in 1943, which was written in his memory. It is widely considered as one of the finest pieces of literature written in the previous century.

The postage stamp shows the poet standing in front of the pillars of Delphi. Sikelianos was the chief inspirer of the Delphic Idea, a vision of immense proportions aiming at the creation of a world spiritual center in Delphi that would unite the peoples of the world. With the help of his wife, he delivered lectures and published papers in an effort to implement his life-long dream. In 1927 the Delphic Idea was realized. The first Delphic Festivals took place, lasting for 2 days featuring ancient Greek theatre plays, sports, art galleries, music and songs. The festival had a world-wide acceptance. Men of letters, artists and scientists from all over the world came to Greece to participate in the celebration. The success was such that a second one was implemented in 1930. Sikelianos was awarded the silver medal by the Academy of Athens for his efforts to revive the Ancient Greek spirit. Unfortunately, due to financial constraints of the couple, the Delphic Idea ended in 1934.

Sikelianos served as President of the Literary Society of Greece and was nominated for the Nobel Prize of Literature 5 times. Kostis Palamas called him a philosopher more than a poet and Nikos Kazantzakis loved him as his closest friend and important source of influence. His works combined elements of romanticism and symbolism with the Ancient Greek Orphics and Pre-Socratic philosophers.

Bibliography

1. Kolovou, A. Η ζωή, το έργο και ο τραγικός θάνατος του ποιητή Άγγελου Σικελιανού. LIFO.gr, LIFO 2015. Retrieved on October 23, 2016.
2. Άγγελος Σικελιανός: Ο μεγάλος λυρικός. Tvxs.gr. Web. June 19, 2016. Retrieved on October 23, 2016.

Empedocles

Philosopher, Physicist, Engineer, Inventor, Physician, Shaman, Musician, Poet (c480 BC – c430 BC)

Empedocles was one of the greatest pre-Socratic philosophers and is acknowledged as one of the brightest minds Greece ever gave birth to. He was a polymath who mastered philosophy, poetry, medicine and politics. He delved deeply into the nature of the human soul, explored the metaphysical world, researched the Cosmos and performed miracles, such as to be called a wizard, a thaumaturge, a shaman and even a God. Because of his insuperable wisdom and his obscure life and work, Empedocles passed into the world of legends.

Empedocles belonged to the Pluralistic school of philosophy. He was the founder of the theory according to which the Universe is comprised of 4 elements: wind, water, fire and earth. These four elements, when mixed together in different combinations and amounts create all things and all life. He deduced that the driving force of all these combinations were two counteracting cosmogonic forces: Love (Φιλότης) and Strife (Νεῖκος). Love acted as a force which drew the elements, or “roots”, together while Strife separated them apart. Love creates and Strife destroys. Empedocles asserted that these two forces constantly battle each other in an endless cycle in order for one of them to prevail; either Love, which tends to direct everything into a cosmic state called Sphaeros, where everything exists as a unity, or Strife, which directs everything into a state known as Acosmy, where everything exists as a distinct element. Together they direct the flow of the cosmic events. Empedocles believed that the universe was egg-shaped. According to him, living beings were originally without a specific shape or size and all matter was condensed into the shape of a sphere. By means of repulsive powers, matter was separated into the 4 elements causing whirling motions.

Despite the fact that Empedocles could have become ruler of his city-state for his tie-ins with the ruling class, he instead chose to walk around the streets of his beloved city practicing medicine, curing the sick and performing miracles. According to Heraclides of Pontus, Empedocles restored a woman to life who was not showing any breathing signs or pulse. On other accounts, Empedocles possessed supernatural powers such as hypnotism and telepathy. He prophesized, communicated with the Gods and daemons, controlled the rain and the winds and managed once to stop a man from killing another man by alleviating his anger using his lyre’s melody. Moreover, Empedocles partook actively in politics by abolishing tyranny and supporting democracy. He was honoured as a God in Selinous for implementing a system of hygiene which saved the lives of many people.

Founder of rhetoric science according to Aristotle and inventor of the water hourglass, Empedocles provided explanations on the function of the respiratory system and connected it with the blood circulation, researched the function of the eyes and proposed that they function similarly to a radar, studied electromagnetism and its effects while expressing the theory of magnetic flux, made important contributions on the physics of optics and acoustics, expressed that solid objects vibrate, discovered the pores of the human body by which perception is achieved and was involved in anthropologic, biologic and chemical studies. Empedocles worked on the origin of the species and on embryology. He wrote a huge number of books, only fragments of which survive today. His most notable ones are On the Nature of Beings, Epigrams and Purifications. The first one was a poetic and scientific work consisting of 3 books concerning Empedocles’ researches on physics, astronomy, physiology and pharmacology. The second one features noteworthy information concerning his philosophy. The third one is a metaphysical treatise that describes the fall of the soul to the world, the reincarnation and explores the supernatural world of magic.

Empedocles taught on the transmigration of the souls. His well-known phrase «Ἤδη γὰρ πότ’ἐγὼ γενόμην κοῦρὸς τε καὶ κόρη τε θάμνος τ’οἰωνὸς τε καὶ ἔνναλος ἕλλοπος ἰχθύς» (For I was once already boy and girl, thicket and bird and a mute fish in the waves) denotes that Empedocles had retained memories of his past lives and could recall having lived as many different life forms with different gender. Because the soul is immortal and is reincarnated whenever the mortal body is destroyed. With his work Purifications the philosopher aimed at redeeming the soul and making it capable of ascending to the Divine planes.

Empedocles believed that he himself was a daemon, a long-living being from the Divine planes that was banished to the mortal world. He was condemned to live a cycle of reincarnations lasting 30.000 years in order to atone for his sins. Having repeated so many transmigrations as different life forms, Empedocles reached his current reincarnation and redeemed his soul, becoming, as he says, an immortal god. Because through these transmigrations do men purify their soul, reincarnate as prophets, physicians, seers or rulers and in the end they attain divinity. Empedocles was all of the above four together. His teachings on the purification of the soul and its ascension to the Divine planes among the divine beings are Empedocles’ major consignment to philosophy and humanity.

Bibliography

1. Altani. Arritoi Logoi Hellenikos Dia-logismos Vol. 1 & 2. Athens: Georgiades, 2012. Print.
2. “Empedocles”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
3. Campbell, Gordon.“Empedocles”. Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Web. Retrieved on October 22, 2016.
4. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. Ancient Greek Scientists. Athens: Georgiades, 1995. Print.
5. Makrygiannis, Demetrios. Cosmology and Ethics of Democritus. Athens: Georgiades, 1999. Print.
6. Pleures, Konstantinos. Greek Philosophers. Athens: Hilektron Publications, 2014. Print.

Theoklitos Farmakidis

Teacher of the Greek Nation, Philosopher, Scholar, Hero of the Greek War of Independence (1784 – 1860)

During the Enlightenment period in Greece, a few years before the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence in 1821, a handful of “enlightened” or educated people, both inside and outside of the borders of subjugated Greece, were struggling to bring about a spiritual revival in Greece so that to educate and prepare the enslaved Greek nation. One of them was Theoklitos Farmakidis.

At the age of 18 he became deacon and later studied in the Patriarchic School of Constantinople, as well as in schools in Iasion, Cydonia and Bucharest. Later he studied in the University of Gottingen with the financial support of Lord Gilford. His work began when he started translating works from Latin to Greek in the temple of St. George of Vienna. For two years worked as a publisher in Λόγιος Ἑρμῆς (Logios Hermes), the major incunabulum published in Europe in Greek language, contributed by many Teachers of the Greek Nation.

With the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence, Farmakidis, having been initiated into the Society of Friends, came to Greece and fought alongside Demetrios Hypsilantis. With the prince’s support he published the first Greek newspaper Ἑλληνικὴ Σάλπιγξ (Hellenic Salpingx) which he distributed throughout Greece. He participated in the first two National Assemblies and later became member of the Supreme Court of Greece. He served as professor in the Ionian Academy where he taught for 3 years. He served as chief editor of the very first issues of the Government Gazette in Nauplion.

Following the assassination of Ioannis Kapodistrias, Farmakidis occupied several positions of the church and state. He was appointed ephorus of the schools in Aegina and the orphanage of Aegina, served as general secretary of the Holy Synod and became professor of theology and philosophy in the University of Athens. His radical ideas on political and theological issues concerning the state often made him a target of the government. This resulted to his imprisonment and loss of the positions he held. He was the main proponent of the independence of the Church of Greece from the Oecumenical Patriarchy, which in the end was achieved.

Farmakidis is widely recognized as one of the most significant theologists of the 19th century and one of the most important spiritual figures of the Greek Enlightenment. A brotherly friend of Theophilos Kairis and Adamantios Korais, he was a humble and honest man, a polymath, a fighter and flaming patriot who stood firm to his beliefs on the revival of the Greek nation and its religious autonomy from the Oecumenical Patriarchy. He had been called “truth seeker” and “political theologist”.

While him himself poor, Farmakidis gave most of the money he earned to the impoverished and did not accept any accolades for his work. He had declined the Order of the Redeemer by the king stating that “If I did something good, it was my duty. My reward for this is my consciousness that I have fulfilled it”. Any money that remained in his possession was used to purchase books. Farmakidis died in 1860 in complete poverty.

Bibliography

1. “Farmakidis, Theoklitos”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
2. Επισημάνσεις στον Πατριωτισμό του Θεόκλητου Φαρμακίδη. Pemptousia.gr. Web. April 24, 2012. Retrieved on October 14, 2016.
3. Φαρμακίδης Θεόκλητος (1784 – 1860). Argolikivivliothiki.gr. Web. February 3, 2011. Retrieved on October 15, 2016.

Polybius

Historian, Statesman (c.200 BC – c.118 BC)

Polybius the Megalopolite is one of the most influential historians and historiographers to date, together with Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon and Pausanias. His work The Histories marks humanity’s first successful attempt in writing down world history.

Polybius’s main influence was his father Lycortas, who was in the epicenter of political events during the 3^rd century BC in the Roman Empire as statesman of the Achaean Confederation. He was also a very capable strategist. Another figure who acted as a role model on young Polybius was Philopoemen, another powerful military personality and friend of his father. Polybius later wrote a book entitled Life of Philopoemen which unfortunately does not survive. His life had many misadventures, as he was he was held hostage in Rome for 17 years until he was freed and allowed to return to Peloponnesus.

Like his father, Polybius was a very skilled diplomat and statesman who relieved the tensions between Achaea and Rome. It is worth mentioning that during hostilities that were evoked between the two republics Polybius exerted all his influence in achieving a peaceful settlement which would be positive for both. As Pausanias states, the gratitude of his homeland was such as statues of him were erected with the following two inscriptions: “Greece would never have come to grief, had she obeyed Polybius in all things, and having come to grief, she found succour through him alone” and “…he had roamed over all the earth and sea, had been the ally of the Romans, and had quenched their wrath against Greece”.

The Histories is by far Polybius’ most recognized work. It consists of 40 books spanning an extensive part of the Roman history from 264 BC to 146 BC. The main topic of his books concerns the Carchidonian war and the Achaean Confederation. His work’s purpose was to demonstrate how the Romans succeeded in conquering a large part of the world in just 53 years and to show that they were in fact a nation of empires. The 40^th book was a recap of all the previous books and included a timetable of all major events chronicled in the previous tomes.

Polybius’ work is one of the greatest written works in history to have survived from antiquity. His excellent knowledge on politics and war as well as his high ranking positions in the Roman Empire rendered him a remarkable analyzer of all the major events, which he himself knew from first hand experience. He is the only one of the Ancient Greek historians whose work has didactic purposes. It is commonly noted that his most influential book is the 4^th, which provides an extensive analysis on the Roman Constitution and its political system which, according to Polybius, was Rome’s key to success.

Polybius exerted a massive and direct influence on the founding fathers of the United States, who wrote the Constitution of the United States of America based on the principles of the Roman Republic as highlighted by Polybius in his book. After studying all the political systems, they found out that the republic of the Roman Empire was the strongest and the longest lasting.

Bibliography

1. Ferguson, Matthew. Polybius, Political Science and the United States Constitution. Adversusapologetica.wordpress.com. Web. November 25, 2013. Retrieved on October 14, 2016.
2. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. Ancient Greek Scientists. Athens: Georgiades, 1995. Print.
3. “Polybius”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
4. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Polybius” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 14 October. 2016.

Bessarion

Philosopher, Cardinal, Scholar (1403 – 1472)

One of the two greatest spiritual figures of the Middle Ages and Father of the Renaissance together with his teacher and mentor Georgios Plethon – Gemistus. Bessarion, whose true name was John of Trapezus, introduced the Greek philosophy and virtues to Italy, played an important role in the council of Florence and occupied a high rank in the Vatican as cardinal. He was a humanist, a scholar, an erudite and a Platonic philosopher whose actions contributed greatly to the revival of Hellenism in the West and the downfall of the religious establishment that had besieged Europe.

He was born in Trapezus during the final years of the Byzantine Empire, a time when education and religion were interconnected and controlled solely by the Church. Nevertheless, Trapezus was renowned for its promotion of education and wisdom. From a young child Bessarion became acquainted with the ancient Greek philosophy and literature while studying in the library of the palace of Trapezus. He continued his studies in Constantinople and in 1437 he was appointed Archbishop of Nicaea.

Bessarion was a flaming patriot. Even though he was accused by the Greeks for having embraced the catholic dogma, he remained truthful throughout his entire life to the promise he made that day he met the wise Georgios Plethon – Gemistus in Mystras to raise Hellenism on their shoulders and walk the path of revival of the entire Ancient Greek spirit. He was an avid advocate of the unification of the two Churches – catholic and orthodox – as he believed that this would salvage Constantinople from falling into the hands of the Ottomans. Hence, both student and master were chosen to serve as important diplomats of the Byzantine Emperor in the council of Ferrara – Florence.

Following the ill-fated success of the council, Bessarion was asked to remain in Italy by the Pope, who admired him for his wisdom, eloquence and diplomatic skills and appointed him cardinal and later Archbishop of Constantinople. During his years as cardinal, Bessarion served as governor of Bologna. The city became one of Italy’s most prestigious cities and flourished both economically and spiritually. For this, Bessarion was named “protector of the city”. In addition, he promoted various reforms in the Church administration and acted as the Pope’s diplomat

Bessarion’s name attracted hundreds of eminent professors, scholars, mathematicians, philosophers and astronomers from all around Europe, who wished to become his students. These humanists formed his first circle of students that would later be perfected in Rome and be known as The Academy or Bessarion’s Academy. In the Academy Bessarion taught Platonic philosophy. The insuperable amazement for his wisdom was such that the humanists felt they were in Plato’s Academy. The eminence of the Academy mirrored that of Pletho’s in Florence and was always open to the Greeks, the Greek refugees and the humanists. Bessarion wrote numerous and significant treatises, his most magnificent being In Calumniatorem Platonis by which he introduced Plato to the West. He wrote books on mathematics and philosophy, and translated the works of Ancient Greek philosophers. Moreover, Bessarion salvaged 746 books in total containing the original works of Ancient Greeks, from all of Europe with his own expenses. These books he donated to the library of Venice and would later form the nucleus of the Biblioteca Marciana, St. Mark’s Library, which to this day stores Bessarion’s entire collection of books. The French historian Vast wrote that “… (Bessarion) during these days is the true hegemon of Venice, the great inspirer of the struggle… He is respected as much as the Doge and he has a greater prestige than him, because his is personal and does not come from his position.” He also said that Bessarion was “the official assignee of Hellenism in Italy and the most serious representative of the Renaissance”.

Basilios Bessarion, in spite of his old age and failing health never ceased struggling for his life-long dream: the rebirth of the Byzantine Empire. He organized by himself two major crusades and several other minor for the liberation of Constantinople but all of them ended up unfruitful. He dedicated all his life and fortune for the salvation of Christianity and the revival of Hellenism. He was detested by the establishment for his “barba graeca” (Greek beard), the symbol of the dedication of his soul to the Ancient Greek spirit. Twice he was nominated for Pope and twice he failed to be elected because of conspiracy against him. However, he was loved by those whose souls he touched and all those humanists to whom he imbued the immortal spirit of Hellenism.

In the end, he died in complete poverty. The seeds of Hellenism he and the immortal Pletho had planted and those of whom he had taught others how to plant, in the following years, began sprouting and as they sprouted, their roots destroyed the pillars of religion on top of which the Middle Ages and the Inquisition had been built. Eventually all the seeds sprouted the trees of the Renaissance.

Bibliography

1. Ayfantis, Georgios. Anthropos & Epistimi – Enimerosis: Prehistory and History of Man, Science & Civilization. Athens: Hellinikon Selas, 2009. Print.
2. “Bessarion”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
3. Gravingger, Petros. Pythagoras and the Mystic Teachings of Pythagoreanism. Athens: Ideotheatron * Dimeli, 1998. Print.
4. Theodorakakos, Kyriakos. Πλήθων Βησσαρίων Η Αυγή του Νέου Ελληνισμού. Retrieved from ΙΧΩΡ, issue 18. February, 2002, pages 72 – 87. Print.

Democritus

Philosopher, Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer (c.460 BC – c.370 BC)

The last of the pre-Socratic philosophers and co-representative of the atomic school of philosophy, Democritus was one of the most influential thinkers of Ancient Greece of all time. Together with his teacher and mentor Leucippus they introduced the atomic theory with the scientific meaning it has today. Like Aristotle, Democritus was a polymath who excelled in various different sciences, namely philosophy, physics, mathematics, astronomy, astrophysics, geography, oceanography, politics, psychology, ethics, art and pharmacy. Democritus was nicknamed “the laughing philosopher”; he laughed at everything because he considered everything around him risible.

He was born in Abdera to a rich family and was trained in the school of Leucippus and Anaxagoras. He devoted all of his family’s wealth to his spiritual travels in Asia Minor, Egypt, Persia, India, and Ethiopia, where he met some of the greatest minds of his era including Heraclitus, Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander and the Pythagoreans. Because Democritus had spent all of family’s fortune on knowledge, he was contemned by his fellow citizens and his brother was forced to provide for him. Nevertheless, Democritus, a man who had sacrificed materialistic life for spiritual development proved his value to the others when he predicted the celestial observations and earned olive oil in very cheap price, similarly to Thales of Miletus. When he read his book Μέγας Διάκοσμος (The Great Cosmos) to his fellow citizens, they acknowledged its price to 500 talanta (his inherited fortune was just 100 talanta).

Democritus’ (and Leucippus’) work can be broadly divided into scientific and metaphysical. While Leucippus was the one who introduced the atomic theory, it was Democritus who developed it and expanded it. In short, the basis of his philosophy is that everything is made of void and atoms. Void and atoms – the smallest unit of existence, those that cannot be divided further – are the origin (ἀρχὴ) of everything that exists. Everything else that exists is an illusion which we decode into reality using of senses and which we perceive as reality. Time is also an illusion (φάντασμα) while solid objects are actually not solid. Nevertheless, atoms themselves according to the philosopher have no perceptible quality. Instead, Democritus considered the atoms as immaterial archetypes which project shadowy representations of reality. He called the atoms “ideas”, similar to Plato’s theory of forms.

Atoms are infinite in number and infinite in shapes. In his book Μέγας Διάκοσμος (The Great Cosmos) Democritus describes the creation of worlds and stars by means of the spinning motion of the atoms. When atoms come into close proximity with each other – without ever coming into contact – they create complex objects such as human beings or superstructures of the macrocosmos. The existence of objects with different shape and sizes are the result of fusion of atoms with different shape, position and order. Wind, water, fire, earth and aether are all the result of such fusion of atoms. Additionally, the sun, the moon as well as the soul are made of atoms. Democritus also spoke about the atomic weight and the motion of the atom.

There exist an infinite number of parallel worlds which are continuously being created and destroyed when they collide with each other. They are very different from one another in size, and in their content, some of which do not possess a moon or a sun, while others do not support life. What Democritus meant with the term “worlds” is ambiguous as it could also mean galaxies or solar systems. Democritus believed in the principle of causality, according to which nothing happens without a cause (ἀνάγκη) and that everything happens because of necessity.

Democritus wrote at least 70 books, of which only fragments remain as references in the works of others. On physics, his most famous books were Μέγας Διάκοσμος (The Great Cosmos) and Μικρὸς Διάκοσμος (The Small Cosmos). These books, in addition to the atomic theory they included some of the most groundbreaking theories in physics such as a detailed description on the creation of worlds with its phases, the structure and characteristics of Democritus’ cosmologic system, the creation of stars and galaxies as well as numerous theories concerning celestial observations. Other books on physics include on planets, on cosmography, on nature, on human nature, on senses, on celestial mechanics, thermodynamics, acoustics, classical mechanics, on biology, zoology and geology. Furthermore, he wrote 5 mathematical books on geometry, arithmetic and logic, 8 books on astronomy, 6 books on engineering and art and 1 book on pharmacy. He developed a very significant political philosophy in which he believed that the archon must serve as the soul of the republic he rules.

Democritus’ philosophy and ethics aimed at making man a spiritually balanced and virtuous being. He taught what was right and just, but he did not impose it on others unless they chose to implement it in their lives. The main axes of Democritus’ philosophy are ethic consciousness, moderation, time – that is, the most suitable time to do something – and eudemonia. Democritus had a profound knowledge on the soul. He knew very well its weaknesses and struggled to help others improve them. He saw every individual as an atom – indeed in Greek language the word ἄτομον (atom) also means person – who each had their own shape, size and role on society. Man himself is a small representation of the universe.

Democritus attempted to conceive the true meaning of God and the Divine Beings. He managed to do so to a great scale. According to him, God is to the world whatever the soul is to man. The origin of the soul is from the Divine Beings. Therefore it is divine. Soul is what drives the human body. It is the link between the invisible divine world where the Divine Beings inhabit and the visible mortal world. It can be compared to an electrical current that empowers a computer. The soul is immortal and genderless. It is, however, wearable/ perishable (φθαρτὸς) together with the human body.

Through meditation, during his endoscopic flights, Democritus discovered the existence of divine entities, which are invisible but co-exist in the mortal world. Democritus called them daemons or eidola and correspond to the same beings mentioned by Socrates, Plato, Poseidonius and Pletho – Gemistus. Temples and statues act as channels which allow these beings to come to our world. Some men can communicate with them. Divine Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Orpheus and all of the wise ancient Greek poets received the information for their poems by means of this “divine inspiration”. Some of them are benevolent and some of them malevolent and depending on this, they guide the souls of men on actions. They are not imperishable but they are long-living beings. Democritus said that the air is full such beings.

It is asserted that, like all of Ancient Greece’s brightest stars, Democritus had been given this philosophy following this divine contact. But for this to occur, such men must have one of their senses much more developed than that of common men and Democritus assured us that there are more than 5 senses in the human being.

Bibliography

1. Ayfantis, Georgios. Anthropos & Epistimi – Enimerosis: Prehistory and History of Man, Science & Civilization. Athens: Hellinikon Selas, 2009. Print.
2. “Democritus”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas I. Athens, 1946. Print.
3. Diogenes Laertius, Lines of Eminent Philosophers. R.D. Hicks, Ed. Perseus.tufts.edu. Web. Retrieved on October 5, 2016.
4. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. Ancient Greek Scientists. Athens: Georgiades, 1995. Print.
5. Makrygiannis, Demetrios. Cosmology and Ethics of Democritus. Athens: Georgiades, 1999. Print.
6. Pleures, Konstantinos. Greek Philosophers. Athens: Hilektron Publications, 2014. Print.

Leucippus

Philosopher, Physicist (5^th century BC)

Leucippus was one of the most important Pre-Socratic philosophers and the Father of the atomic theory. He founded the Atomic philosophic School in Abdera where he taught philosophy and physics. He was a contemporary of Democritus, who was his student and successor. Two of Leucippus’ works are known that contain his entire philosophy: The Great Cosmos (Μέγας Διάκοσμος) and On Nous. Even though only fragments of them survive, it is now known that Leucippus founded a very influential philosophy, which comprised of two scales: a scientific, containing his teachings on the theory of the atom as well as his cosmologic system, and a metaphysical one.

It is difficult to draw a distinguishing line between Leucippus’ and Democritus’ philosophy because it is not known to which philosopher belong certain contributions of the philosophy. Hence, their work is studied as one, even though Leucippus is commonly overshadowed by his student as far as concerning the atomic theory.

Leucippus was the first recorded in history to have spoken about the atom in a scientific manner. Prior to them, Thales of Miletus, Anaximander and Heraclitus believed that the primary elements that composed the world were the earthly elements. Leucippus asserted that the world was composed of an infinite number of particles, invisible to the human eye because of their small size, moving perpetually in the infinite, empty void. He called these particles “the atoms”. Their name means those that cannot be divided into smaller pieces, meaning the smallest unit of existence. Atoms cannot be destroyed or created. According to Leucippus the atoms formed the being, because of their solid nature, while the non-being, the void, was devoid of atoms and served as the place where the being moved. Leucippus asserted that the atoms had infinite shapes. Their differences are the reason for the differences in the size, shape and order of different objects. Atoms are constantly moving in the void because of an external force. When some of them collide, they combine with each other without coming into contact with one another thus forming complex objects and bodies. Leucippus believed that atoms had weight.

The cosmologic system presented in Democritus’ Mikros Diacosmos is believed to have been introduced by Leucippus in his book Megas Diakosmos and then developed by Democritus himself. The book deals not only with the atomic theory, but also with the creation of worlds and their destruction, as well as the existence of parallel worlds. It is not exactly clear what the philosophers meant with the term world. Leucippus and Democritus explain that the universe is infinite. It consists of the whole and the void, both of which constitute the elements. Infinite parallel worlds exist dissolved in the elements. When an unlimited number of atoms of different shapes are carried from the infinite to the void of empty space, they collect and form a vortex where they spin chaotically until they can no longer spin. Bodies with different weight divide from each other with the lighter ones going outside and the heavier ones collecting inside, forming the core. Thus, a sphere is created, which grows larger by the influx of atoms that it adds to itself. This is how worlds, according to Leucippus and Democritus, are created. They then explain about the creation of the stars, the solar systems and their destruction back to atoms and void, the characteristics of such cosmological systems as well as various celestial phenomena of our solar system. Modern science has vindicated the philosophers’ cosmological system in many points.

Leucippus introduced the principle of causality, according to which nothing happens without a cause (ἀνάγκη). In the Leucippean – Democritean cosmological systems everything happens because of necessity. Worlds and beings are created on the unification of atoms and are destroyed when atoms are separated from each other. Only atoms, the void and the primary elements exist in reality. Everything else is nothing more than an illusion which we perceive as reality with our senses. Materials are not actually solid. They are shadows which we decode as materials. Therefore, truth, as the two philosophers claimed, comes not from our senses, but from the mind.

The atomic school’s philosophy was very daring for its time, way ahead of many other theories on the creation of the world and the architecture of reality. Perhaps one day in the distant future, Leucippus’ and Democritus’ theories may be proven scientifically correct.

Bibliography

1. Ayfantis, Georgios. Anthropos & Epistimi – Enimerosis: Prehistory and History of Man, Science & Civilization. Athens: Hellinikon Selas, 2009. Print.
2. Diogenes Laertius, Lines of Eminent Philosophers. R.D. Hicks, Ed. Perseus.tufts.edu. Web. Retrieved on October 5, 2016.
3. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. Ancient Greek Scientists. Athens: Georgiades, 1995. Print.
4. Makrygiannis, Demetrios. Cosmology and Ethics of Democritus. Athens: Georgiades, 1999. Print.
5. Pleures, Konstantinos. Greek Philosophers. Athens: Hilektron Publications, 2014. Print.