Lysias

Rhetorician (c.450 BC – c.380 BC)

Lysias is one of the most influential logographers in world history, together with Isocrates. He was active in Athens during the Golden Age of Pericles and was honoured among the Athenians as one of the city’s best citizens. His father, Cephalus, was a wealthy craftsman from Syracuse who appears as one of the main characters, together with Lysias’ elder brother, Polemarchus in Plato’s Republic.

Lysias studied rhetoric in Thurium and came to work in Athens as a rhetorididacalos. He was persecuted when the Thirty Tyrants took over and his brother was killed, forcing him to exile to Megara. Upon the restoration of democracy, Lysias returned to Athens and was named an honourary citizen.

Lysias wrote a total of 425 speeches, of which only 34 survive to this day. These include judicial, epideictic and deliberative speeches, which he wrote for public and private cases. His work has significant historical and aesthetic value. It is a valuable source of information for the Peloponnesian War, the Corinthian War and the politicosocial life in Athens during the reign of the Thirty Tyrants. Among his most notable speeches are Olympiakos, where he tries to persuade the Greeks to go to war against the tyrant Dionysus of Sicily, Epithaphios, in which lauds the fallen heroes of the Corinthian war in 394 BC, For Mantitheus, a judicial rhetoric to prove the innocence of Mantitheus, after being accused of being an ally to the Thirty Tyrants, and For the Weak, which was orated by a handicapped citizen in support of his right to receive pension. It is believed that he wrote a speech for Socrates’ defense during his apology when he visited him in the prison, which Socrates declined.

Dionysus of Halicarnassus praises Lysias for his virtuous ethopoiea and his ability to adapt the speech to his client’s persona, to an extent that the speech seems to be an original work of the speaker. He was renowned for telling the truth with persuasiveness, simplicity and logic. The great rhetoricians who followed, such as Isocrates, Hyperides and Demosthenes, all considered him as their prime exemplar.

To this day, his works are considered masterpieces, and provide the mainstream source of education for rhetoric and those who wish to master the art of persuasive speech. Lysias laid the foundations of rhetoric logos, setting the paradigm of the virtuous rhetorician.

1. Dalkos Konstantinos, Dalkos Christos, Manousopoulos Georgios, Bonovas Nikolaos, Parginos Spiridon. Ρητορικά Κείμενα (Β’ Τάξη Γενικού Λυκείου – Θεωρητικής Κατεύθυνσης). Οργανισμός Εκδόσεως Διδακτικών Βιβλίων:Αθήνα, 1999. Print.
2. “Lysias”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
3. militaryveterangamer. The Rhetoric Theory 4: Types of Rhetoric. Ign.com. Web. October 6, 2012. Retrieved on January 20, 2017.
4. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Brittanica. ”Lysias” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. February 28, 2008. Retrieved on January 20, 2017.

Vasilis Tsitsanis

Singer, Musician, Composer (1915 – 1984)

In 1936, a 21-year old peasant from Trikala arrived in Larisa Station in Athens, completely penniless, carrying with him nothing but a bouzouki and a suitcase, with some notebooks of serenades and a bunch of clothes inside. His music would change the Greek musical world forever and he would be written down in history as one of the most influential and beloved Greek singers and composers of the 20^th century.

Vasilis Tsitsanis never ceased composing ever since the age of 13, when he began playing the bouzouki. He started studying law in the University of Athens, but soon dropped out, since university was too little for him. To supplement his income, he performed at night clubs until he was approached by a successful singer, who took him to his recording studio. There, he recorded his first song S’enan teneke boukarane, followed by Hi Archontisa, which became a hit. The song, which was written during the 2^nd World War, would be performed by numerous renowned singers, such as Markos Vamvakaris.

During the Axis Occupation, Tsitsanis opened the Ouzeri Tsitsanis in Thessaloniki, a small tavern where he performed some of his most successful and classic songs. By the age of 23, he had already become famous throughout all Greece. His songs were sung throughout the entire country and his name had become synonymous to that of a master musician and musical reformer of Laiko. He attracted numerous important figures of the Greek musical industry, namely Stelios Kazantzidis, Marika Ninou and Gregorios Bithikotsis. Some of his most famous songs became Whatever I say, I don’t Forget You, We Are Alania, I Was Born to Hurt, A Stroll Indside Greece, Tonight in the Seashores, Magic Nights, Acharisti, Beautiful Thessaloniki and most notably Cloudy Sunday.

By the end of his career, Tsistanis had composed and sang over 500 songs. He died on his 69^th birthday on January 18, 1984. He was awarded posthumously the Charles Graux prize by the Musical Academy of France in 1985. To date, he is the only one of two Greeks to have been awarded this prize, along with Harris Alexiou. He passed down in history as one of the founders of Rebetiko and an important, innovative reformer of contemporary Greek folk music. His music inaugurated a new era in the Greek musical world, beginning as early as before the Second World War. To this day, Tsitsanis’ songs are considered masterpieces, Tsistanis himself as the greatest Greek musician.

Bibliography

1. Vasilis Tsitsanis. Greeksongs-greekmusic.com. Web. Retrieved on January 15, 2017.
2. Βασίλης Τσιτσάνης 1915 – 1984. sansimera.gr. Web. Retrieved on January 15, 2017.

Yiannis Ritsos

Poet (1909 – 1990)

The poet of Romiosyni, Yiannis Ritsos, who was born in Monemvasia, is one of modern Greece’s most highly-read and beloved poets as well as an internationally acknowledged literary figure. His work, which spans over 100 poem collections, 4 theatrical plays and 9 novels, has been translated in 40 languages.

Ritsos wrote his first poems at the age of 8. He made his first debut in the literary world in a magazine called Children’s Formation in 1924. He suffered from hardships due to the loss of his brother and mother from tuberculosis and the loss of their fortune due to his father’s gambling. This forced Ritsos to try to earn his living by working as a subeditor, an actor and even a dancer.

Tractor became Ritsos’ first major publication of his collection of poems under the pseudonym Y. Sostir (his actual name spelled backwards). This marked an important beginning in Ritsos’ career. In the following years, he would write some of the most renowned poetic collections in the history of Greek literature and would earn the chrism of Kostis Palamas, modern Greece’s national poet.

He wrote the Pyramids, a collection of poems which were followed by the highly acclaimed Epitaph in 1936, The Song of my Sister, Spring Symphony and Embaterion of the Ocean. He also wrote Old mazurka in the rhythm of the rain and Trial, two collections of poems, followed by the novel In the Foothills of Silence. During the Greek civil war in 1948, Ritsos was arrested exiled in Lemnos and Macronesos. There, he continued publishing poetic collections.

1954 marked the year of publication of Ritsos’ monumental masterpiece Romiosyni, together with The Lady of the Vineyards. The former was met with widespread acclaim internationally and was set to music by Mikis Theodorakis, as was the Epitaph. In 1956, Ritsos published the Moonlight Sonata, for which he was awarded the National Prize of Literature, together with Aris Dicteos. In 1962 he published a series of collections of short poems – monologues with themes from ancient Greek tragic poetry The Dead House and Under the Shadow of the Mountain. Numerous other poems followed until his worldwide recognition in the 70’s, most notably Gignesthai, a collection of 32 poems published between the years 1970 and 1977.

In 1970 he was elected member of the Academy of Literature of West Germany. In 1972 he was awarded the Great International Award for Poetry in Belgium, the Georgi Dimitrov international award in Bulgaria and the Great Prize for Poetry Alfre de Viny in France in 1975 while in 1976 he received the Etna-Taormina international award in Italy. In 1986 he was awarded the Peace Poetry Award by the United Nations and in 1990, a few months before his death, he received the Joliot-Curie award by the World Peace Council, the highest distinction for world peace.

Ritsos was not only a poet. He was a playwright, a painter, an idealist, a revolutionary of the left, recognized worldwide by accomplished poets as one of Europe’s greatest poetic voices of the 20^th century. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature 9 times and was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize, which, he considered more important for him than the Nobel Prize. He was awarded an honorary doctorate by numerous distinguished European universities. Nevertheless, he remained a humble man throughout his entire life; he referred to himself as a “simple worker” with an easy-to-pronounce name: Yiannis Ritsos.

Bibliography

1. The Poet of Romiossyni. Ellines.com. Web. Retrieved on January 10, 2017.
2. Γιάννης Ρίτσος 1909 -1990 Ο ποιητής της Ρωμιοσύνης. Thehistoryofgreece.blogspot.bg. Web. September 5, 2013. Retrieved on January 10, 2017.

Agatharchides

Naturalist, Philosopher (2^nd century BC)

Agatharchides was a Peripatic (Aristotelic) philosopher, geographer, historian and natural scientist who flourished during the 2^nd century BC. Even though most of his work has not survived, he is considered as one of the most influential grammarians of the 2^nd century BC and his influence in the ancient world is believed to have been significant.

He was born in Cnidus at an unknown date and travelled to Alexandria, where he worked and studied. Originally he worked as a teacher until he became anagnostis and secretary of Heraclides of Lembus, one of the ambassadors of Ptolemy VII the Philometor in Syria, whom Agatharchides accompanied during negotiations and important political events. The date of his death is also not known, but what is known is that he was 75 years old in 132 BC.

Agatharchides was the first to provide the Egyptians with the real cause of the periodic flooding of river Nile and was involved with the science of ethnography. He is also the founder of Parasitology, a medical specialty focused on studying the diseases caused by parasites. He wrote treatises such as Circumnavigation of the Red Sea, On Africa and On Asia. In addition, he was the first to write a book on the history of Europe, consisting of 40 tomes and on the history of Asia, consisting of 10 books. On Asia was the book from which the Persians were taught their own history during subsequent years. These books also contained information about the strange plants and animals discovered in these continents.

Agatharchides attempted to distinguish mythology from history. He upgraded the role of ethnography and made it a part of history instead of geography. As a proponent of Aristotle, he was less interested in metaphysics and more dedicated to understanding the world based on the massive amount of data that he had compiled during his research. Epicurus was one of his inspirations. Poseidonius, Diodorus of Sicily and Photius I of Constantinople were only a few of whom he influenced.

Bibliography

1. “Agatharchides”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
2. Αγαθαρχίδης ο Κνίδιος. Ίδρυμα Μείζωνος Ελληνισμού, Μικρά Ασία. Asiaminor.ehw.gr. Web. Retrieved on January 7, 2017.

Plotinus

Philosopher (204 – c.270)

Founder of the Neoplatonic School of philosophy and one of the last ancient Greek philosophers of the Graeco-Roman period, Plotinus achieved revival of the Pythagorean and Platonic philosophy at a time when Hellenism had reached its downfall and Christianity began prevailing. As a spiritual successor of Plato, Plotinus recreated the Platonic philosophy and developed a sophisticated philosophical movement based on the teachings not solely of Plato, but also of Pythagoras, Aristotle and Epicurus.

The world in which Plotinus was born was much different from that of classical antiquity. It was a world of ethical and spiritual decline. Philosophic Schools had become scarce and unproductive while Greece had become subjugated to the Romans. Concurrently, the rise of Christianity had plunged the world into superstition and indifference. The result was confused souls who had lost their purpose seeking new ideals and values in a world where knowledge and truth had been replaced by faith and belief.

In the midst of this illusory world appeared Plotinus, tasked with providing a new direction to humanity’s misguided soul. He began studying philosophy from the age of 8, constantly changing schools and teachers, until he met Ammonius Saccas, next to whom he studied for 8 consecutive years. Plotinus completed his studies in the Museum of Alexandria, the biggest spiritual center of Hellenism at the time, home of thousands of spiritual treasures which were used by Plotinus for laying the foundations of Neoplatonism. He travelled to Persia, Antioch and settled in Rome, where he founded a school composed of a small circle of students. Notable students of his were Porphyry, Gentilianus and Rogatianus, a high-ranked senator who gave up all his property and freed his slaves upon hearing Plotinus’ teachings.

Plotinus’ philosophy is considered to be the last perfect expression of the Hellenic soul. He calls humanity to contemplation to discover the true meaning of eudaimonism and happiness; the return to the One, the Ultimate Being and the unification with that One Being, from which all life emanates. No name can express the grandness of the One. It is the force from which all souls come and to which all will return. The One created the universe and all life-forms.

The practicality of Plotinus’ philosophy is for man to live an ethical and virtuous life that will make him similar to God («Θεῶ ὁμοιωθῆναι») and return to his divine fatherland, leaving behind the materialistic world in which the soul was entrapped into the body and celebrating a state of unification of the soul with The One.

There exist two worlds: the earthly and the divine world, which contradict each other. The earthly world is the living image of the noetic/spiritual world that is contained within Nous (intellect) as a thought. Man’s soul participates in both of these worlds since its origin is from the divine world. Hence, the soul is in constant battle with the forces of the conscious world that draw the soul toward it. The soul’s goal is to defeat these forces and head toward the hyperconscious world, from which is originates and become one with God. This is Plotinus’ metaphysical idea on the human soul, which he addresses to humanity in order for them to live a virtuous and ethical life. Only in the hyperconscious world will man find true happiness; not in the conscious world where materials prevail.

Plotinus’ hyperconscious world is comprised of three foundational elements of his philosophy: The One, the Nous and the Cosmic Soul. The One, as discussed above, is the infinite source of reality. The Nous (intellect) is the Divine Mind, a separate entity of The One which is paralleled to the rays of the sunlight, which befall on The One. This way, the One contemplates itself. The Nous is the source of all material things, the origin of the Platonic Forms or Ideas. Nous is not a self-sufficient entity like The One but possesses the ability to meditate on the thoughts which form its very being. Finally, the Cosmic Soul, the third level of reality, is a concept defined by Plotinus that gives the purpose of God’s descent to the earthly world. The higher part of the Soul remains eternally in the Divine Realm while the lower part of the Soul, the active one, descends into the aesthetic world and falls victim to the materialistic hedones, forgetting its divine origin. Plotinus struggles to return the lower part of his Soul to the Divine Realm through the cultivation of Virtue, the practice of Dialectic and Contemplation.

Plotinus revived all of the highest spiritual conceptions ever discovered by the Greek philosophers in attempt to salvage the fore coming generations. Neoplatonic philosophy, which Plotinus founded, is a magnificent compilation of all the spiritual forces of antiquity, comprised of a complete system of philosophy, religion, metaphysics and science. It formed the leading philosophical movement of the Graeco-Roman era and the Byzantine era. Plotinus was the last Greek intellect of antiquity and his philosophy the last glimmer of the ancient Greek spirit. He wanted to overcome Christianity but it proved to be stronger than his own religion. Plotinus continued the work of Pythagoras and Plato and became one of humanity’s greatest Teachers. His work, in turn, was continued by his successors Proclus and Pletho – Gemistus, who cultivated and disseminated the Neoplatonic philosophy.

Bibliography

1. Gravigger, Petros. Pythagoras and the Mystical Teaching of Pythagoreanism. Ideotheatron * Dimeli: Athens, 1998. Print.
2. Moore, Edward. Plotinus. Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Iep.utm.edu. Web. Retrieved on December 30, 2016.
3. Pleures, Konstantinos. Greek Philosophers. Athens: Hilektron Publications, 2014. Print.
4. “Plotinus”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
5. Stokes, Philip. Philosophy: 100 Essential Thinkers. Fytraki: Athens, 2008. Print.

Yiannis Dyovouniotis

Hero of the Greek War of Independence (1757 – 1831)

His name means “two mountains”. His real name was Yiannis Xykis. He was a poor shepherd from the village of the Two Mountains who, from a young age, became a distinguished harmatolos and partook actively in the Greek War of Independence. His greatest contribution in the war was in the Battle of Vasilika.

In 1820, one year before the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence, Dyovouniotis was initiated into the Society of Friends a secret organization that aimed to secretly organize the Greeks and enforce the war of independence. Together with Panourgias, Skaltsas and Athanasios Diakos they formed the leaders of the war in Sterea Hellada. Dyovouniotis hoisted the Greek flag in Mendenitsa during the outbreak of the war and seized control of the castle there.

In 1821, Sterea Hellada and Peloponnesus rebelled simultaneously, forcing Hursit Pasha, who was battling against Ali Pasha in Ioannina, to send troops to Sterea Hellada in attempt to seize control of Tripolitsa in Peloponnesus. Qiose Pasha and Omer Vrioni descended to Sterea Hellada with an army of 8000 men and 800 horsemen where they broke the resistance of Athanasios Diakos in Alamana, Odysseus Androutsos in Chani of Gravia and Aggelis Govinas in Vrisakia. When they reached Lamia, Dyovouniotis was the first to be informed of it and gathered all of the generals of Sterea Hellada to a meeting where they discussed how to halt the Ottoman’s descent to Livadia. Dyovouniotis suggested that they set an ambush in a small path that led to the village of Vasilika. He and his men hid inside a forest and suddenly attacked the enemy from behind whilst fighting against the second Greek division led by Gouras. There were about 1600 Greeks in total plus Odysseus’ Androutsos’ reinforcements.

Dyovouniotis’ ingenious plan resulted in the decimation of the Ottoman army thus putting an end to the Ottoman campaign in Peloponnesus. The Battle of Vasilika was considered the most important victory of the Greeks in Sterea Hellada. This allowed the Greeks to reclaim Tripolista and established their dominance in Sterea Hellada. Dyovouniotis became a fearsome name to the Turks and he was given the honorary rank of strategos (general officer).

Bibliography

1. Flerianou, Aikaterini. Mάχη στα Βασιλικά. Αργολική Αρχειακή Βιβλιοθήκη Ιστορίας και Πολιτισμού. Argolikivivliothiki.gr. Web. April 13, 2012. Retrieved on December 21, 2016.

Epicurus

Philosopher, Physicist, Scholar (341 BC – 270 BC)

Epicurus was the founder of the Epicurean school of philosophy. While his teachings in physics are largely similar to those of Democritus concerning the atom and the parallel worlds, Epicurus’ key concepts in his philosophy were hedonism and eudaimonia. He was also involved with metaphysics, ethics and epistemology. His philosophy had wide acceptance, even after his own death.

Epicurus came from Samos. He settled in Athens where he purchased land and founded “The Garden”, a philosophic school which put Epicurus’ teachings into practice. Men and women were equally accepted as students there, as well as hetaerae, a fact that misled some people to believe that they conducted orgies.

Epicurus’ teachings on physics were largely inspired by those of the Atomists. As Cicero said: “Is there anything in Epicurus’ physics which does not come from Democritus?”. He believed that atoms constituted the smallest structural unit of the universe. Everything tangible in this world, as well as the soul, is composed of atoms. Actions and events are the result of atoms colliding and entangling with each other forming presentations which we perceive as reality. Atoms exist in empty space called the void. Epicurus believed that nothing comes into existence from something that does not exist. As a result, the universe, which is made of countless atoms, has no beginning and no end; instead, it has always existed and will continue to for infinite time. The world, according to the philosopher, was ruled not by God, but by some sort of nature without logic, comprised of atoms. He was not an atheist, as many believed but he did not attribute certain beliefs to God as the majority falsely did. Epicurus also spoke about the existence of infinite parallel worlds.

Epicurus differentiated his atomic theory from Democritus in some points. He introduced the third characteristic of the atom, after the size and shape; the atomic weight. This he perceived as a necessary cause for the movement of the atom. All atoms have weight; some are heavier while others are lighter than others. This is the reason why some objects in the macrocosmos are heavier than others and vice-versa. Second, he believed that sensations and certain properties of the body are real, because these are capabilities that apply only to specific atoms that make up bodies. Hence, sensations give us information about the external world, based on which we make judgments through our thought. Thought depends on our senses to the extent that human intellect does not exist without first having existed in his senses. Third, Epicurus spoke about the swerve, a mechanical property of the atom concerning its motion.

Epicurus wrote about 300 books on his philosophical views on hedonism and eudaimonism, most of which survive only in fragments. According to him, the purpose of life is to live a happy life. Hedonism means pleasure and it is what humans attain for themselves through their actions. Everything that man does from the time he is born is to seek pleasure instinctively. However, Epicurus taught not about materialistic pleasure but about spiritual pleasure, the highest pleasures of all. This can be achieved by living a life of virtue and limiting one’s desires. Justice, prudence, fortitude and temperance are the virtues needed to live a happy life. Pleasure would ultimately be man’s reward of living a virtuous life. In addition, sciences such as philosophy, physics and logic are tools that provide happiness to man because it rids him of desires, fear and misconceptions. Friendship formed a very essential part of the Epicurean philosophy, as the philosopher placed great importance in this good.

The Epicurean philosophical system, including the atomic theory, metaphysics and ethics attempted not only to provide an explanation of the materialistic world, sensory physiology, human evolution and societies but most importantly to explore the nature of the soul, as did most ancient Greek philosophers. His teachings, which were put into practice aimed at making the soul virtuous.

Bibliography

1. Konstan, David, “Epicurus”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Stanford.edu. Retrieved on December 18, 2016.
2. Makrygiannis, Demetrios. Cosmology and Ethics of Democritus. Athens: Georgiades, 1999. Print.
3. O’Keef, Tim. Epicurus. Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Iep.utm.edu. Web. Retrieved on December 18, 2016.
4. Pleures, Konstantinos. Greek Philosophers. Athens: Hilektron Publications, 2014. Print.

Constantine Caratheodory

Mathematician, Physicist, Engineer, Scholar (1873 – 1950)

Constantin Caratheodory was the greatest Greek mathematician since antiquity and one of the most influential mathematicians of the 20^th century. He lived and worked primarily in Germany, where, as a polymath, was involved with physics, languages, engineering, archeology, politics and most importantly mathematics. He is the only Greek to have been awarded the title of Member of the German Academy of Sciences to date.

He was born in Berlin in 1873 to a Greek noble family and studied engineering in Belgium. Prior to this, Caratheodory had won twice the first prize in mathematical competitions consecutively of all Gymnasiums of Germany. In 1889 he went to work in Egypt as an engineer in the dam of Aswan. His love for mathematics, however, made his return to Berlin and study mathematics. In 1905 he became an associate professor in the University of Gottingen, Germany while in 1909 he became professor in the University of Hanover. Finally in 1918 he became chairman of the department of mathematics in the University of Berlin.

In 1920 he was invited by then Prime Minister of Greece Eleutherios Venizelos to organize the Greek University of Smyrna. His attempts, although highly successful, were short-lived and Caratheodory barely managed to save his own life during the Great Fire of Smyrna in 1922. Nevertheless, he managed to salvage the school’s library and transport it to Athens, whereupon he assumed the position of full-time professor in the University of Athens in 1923 and later in the National Technical University. In 1924, Caratheodory was appointed professor of mathematics in the University of Munich. Throughout the years he would teach in various prestigious universities worldwide such as in Breslau, Harvard, California etc.

In 1930 Caratheodory was reinvited by Eleutherios Venizelos to reorganize the administration of the University of Athens and the University of Thessaloniki. For 50 years, the two universities functioned successfully thanks to Caratheodory’s administrative system. Two years later, he resigned from his position in the Greek universities and moved back to the University of Munich, in contempt for his fellow professors’ envy against him. He would remain in Munich for the rest of his life, where he indulged in mathematics and made some of the most groundbreaking mathematical discoveries in the history of mankind.

Caratheodory had over 60 scientific publications in his academic career. His most significant contributions to mathematics were in the calculus of variations, in the theory of real functions, set theory, geometry, calculus, complex numbers and mathematical analysis. Moreover, he created new theorems, most of which today bear his name and solved mathematical problems that troubled mathematicians such as Gauss and Euler for hundreds of years. In physics, Caratheodory was involved with geometric optics, statistical mechanics, entropy and primarily with thermodynamics. Some modern physicists consider Caratheodory today as the Father of Thermodynamics.

Caratheodory is known to have been the mentor and teacher of Nobel-prize winning physicist Albert Einstein, according to Einstein’s own statements. Einstein first contacted Caratheodory in 1916, seeking his help to solve mathematical problems that for Caratheodory were “classical”. The later answered in 10 days. Einstein would often seek Caratheodory’s advices on mathematical issues since Einstein’s knowledge on mathematics were poor. It was Constantine Caratheodory who helped Einstein complete the theory of relativity, since Caratheodory had also been heavily involved with it himself. It was in 1924 when he published his magnum opus of physics Axiomatic on the special theory of relativity. In his final interview, Albert Einstein confessed: “You ask me to answer to all sorts of questions, but no one has ever wanted to know who was my teacher, who showed me the way to the higher mathematical science, thought and research. I simply say that my teacher was the unrivalled Greek Konstantinos Karatheodoris, to who we owe everything…”.

The “new Euclid” as he was called by Jules Vern when he was only 10 years old, the man who spoke 6 languages as well as ancient languages fluently never stopped working in mathematics. Even a few days before his death at the age of 77, Caratheodory was on his desk, researching new mathematics. He was a flaming patriot who, in spite of the fact that he only visited Greece twice in his lifetime, in his older years he combined engineering, his original studies, with his love, archeology and published important mathematical papers on the bases of the columns of the Parthenon.

Caratheodory achieved worldwide eminence in the field of mathematics and physics, except in Greece. When Einstein asked him to solve for him “… the problem with the closed lines of time…” and Caratheodory solved it, Einstein replied: “I kneel before you”.

Bibliography

1. Aftzigianni, Venetia. Albert Einstein’s teacher was the Great Greek Konstantinos Karatheodoris. Greekreporter.com. Web. February 21, 2011. Retrieved on December 12, 2016.
2. Ayfantis, Georgios. Anthropos & Epistimi – Enimerosis: Prehistory and History of Man, Science & Civilization. Athens: Hellinikon Selas, 2009. Print.
3. Ευριπίδης Στυλιανίδης. Κωνσταντίνος Καραθεοδωρή – Αφιέρωμα στο ALTER. Youtube. April 6, 2011. Web.
4. “Karatheodoris, Konstantinos”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.

Nicephorus II Phocas

Byzantine Emperor (c.912 – 969)

His name means “Bringer of Victory”. He reigned as Emperor of the Byzantine Empire from 963 to 969. During those 6 years he managed to prove himself as one of the most competent, skilful and eminent Emperors who ever held the throne of the Byzantine Empire. He is chiefly remembered for his political, military and religious reforms that led to the enforcement of the Byzantine Empire, rendering it the most powerful of all the empires at the time.

His work began before he was crowned king, when he pursued a military career early in his life. He distinguished himself in battles and eventually succeeded his father Bardas Phocas as commander of the Byzantine army of the East division. In 961 he liberated the island of Crete, which was occupied by the Arabs for 137 years and established Christianity.

Having achieved widespread popularity by the public and having earned the trust of the high-ranked authorities, Nicephorus Phocas was crowned Byzantine Emperor in 963. His primary concern was Islam, which had started becoming a formidable enemy of the Byzantine Empire. Thus, in spring 964 he led a campaign against the Arabs. The successful reclaiming of Cilicia, Palestine and Cyprus from the Arabs opened to way for the liberation of Syria. In the absence of the emperor in Constantinople, the Byzantine forces entered Antioch and then reclaimed Aleppo, ultimately terminating the Arab Empire.

Next, he turned his attention towards the Bulgarians, who had signed a peace treaty with the Byzantine Empire, forcing it to pay heavy taxation as a means of subordinance to them. Phocas commenced negotiations with the king of the Russians, Tsar Sviatoslav in attempt to rid of the Bulgarians. The outcome, however, was much more different than what had happened to the Arabians, with Tsar Sviatoslav becoming more menacing for the Byzantines than the Bulgarians. The problem with the Bulgarians and the Russians would be resolved when John Tzimiskes would ascend to throne right after Nicephorus Phocas’s assassination in 969.

His Spartan way of life was reflected on his domestic policies for the administration of the Empire. His first priority was enforcement of the military; hence, he increased taxation and made cuts of funding in favour of the army. He forbade the Church from increasing its fortune and supported the restoration of old churches, monasteries and nursing homes instead of building new ones. Phocas himself had restored older churches in Crete and Cappadocia. Finally, he wrote two treatises on war, De velitatione bellica and Praecepta militaria, although some historians attribute them to others.

In the end, Nicephorus Phocas was assassinated by his consort and John Tzimiskes, who immediately assumed throne. Some saw Nicephorus Phocas as a military giant who, although rarely left his headquarters in Constantinople, organized an army so powerful that destroyed the Arabs and imposed itself in the East. Others saw him as an oppressive tyrant due to his interventions in the Church and his heavy taxation. Nevertheless, he was an undefeatable warlord whose death caused joy among the enemies of the Empire. He was beatified by the Church and is celebrated in Mt. Athos to this day as a saint every year on December 11^th.

Bibliography

1. Helene Ahrweiler. ”Nicephorus II, Phocas” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 8 December. 2016.
2. Νικηφόρος Β’, Φωκάς. Εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μείζωνος Ελληνισμού, Μικρά Ασία. Asiaminor.ehw.gr. Web. Retrieved on December 8, 2016.
3. “Nikoforos II, Phokas”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.

Demetrios Chalcocondyles

Philosopher, Scholar (1423 – 1511)

Humanist, writer and professor of Classical studies, Demetrios Chalcocondyles was one of the chief representatives of the Renaissance. Having fled from Athens to Rome during the final years of the Byzantine Empire, Chalcocondyles became one of the core members of the Platonists of the West, who revived Hellenism in Italy and subsequently in entire Europe.

The Chalcocondyles was a noble family from Athens, many of which members, including Demetrios and his cousin Laonicus, became scholars in the largest universities of Italy. His family first fled from Athens in 1435 after the city fell in the hands of the Acciaioli dynasty and settled in Mystras. There, Demetrios studied philosophy next to Georgios Plethon – Gemistus, the greatest philosopher of the Middle Ages, until in 1449 when he went to Rome. There he was taught Latin by Theodore Gazis. The two men formed a strong friendship and Demetrios inherited Gazis’ entire library after his death.

Chalcocondyles taught Greek language and philosophy in Perugia, Italy and in 1463 he became chairman of the department of Classical studies in the University of Padua. Greek language, philosophy and mathematics began forming an important part of the schools’ curriculum with Plato and Aristotle being Chalcocondyles’ primary teachings.

In 1472 he abandoned his position from the university and settled in Florence. 3 years later he was appointed chairman of the department of Classical studies in the University of Florence, a position which he held for 16 years. During his years as chairman, he published the very first edition of the complete works of Homer, accompanied with his notes. The treatise was called Homerou Sozomena; it marked the first time that the West came into contact with the insuperable wisdom of the Homeric epics after thousands of years.

The third major city where Chalcocondyles taught was Milan, where he published the works of Isocrates and the Suda Lexicon. He unsuccessfully ran as candidate for the department of Greek philosophy in Venice and went to Ferrara, where he continued teaching until his death in 1511 at the age of 88.

Demetrios Chalcocondyles taught tirelessly for over 35 years in the most significant spiritual centers of the Renaissance, achieving widespread fame and recognition. He had hundreds of students, the most notable ones being Angelo Poliziano, his long-time friend and assistant Marcilio Ficino and the philhellene printer Aldus Manutius, who attended his lectures in Milan. The West got to know Homer once again thanks to Chalcocondyles, as well as Plato, Aristotle and Isocrates. The dissemination of the Greek knowledge which he and the other great Teachers of humanity had brought together with them from the fallen Byzantium broke the shackles of religion and ultimately led to the Renaissance, the revival of human thought and Hellenism.

Bibliography

1. “Chalkokondylis, Dimitrios”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
2. Christou, Eirini. Χαλκοκονδύλης Δημήτριος (1423 – 1511). Αργολική Αρχειακή Βιβλιοθήκη Ιστορίας και Πολιτισμού. Argolokivivliothiki.gr. Web. July 22, 2011. Retrieved on December 9, 2016.