Georgios Plethon – Gemistus

Philosopher, Scholar, Judge (1355 – 1452 or 1454)

The greatest political and spiritual figure of the Greek Middle Ages and one of the greatest philosophical minds in world history, Georgios Gemistus was the leading Pythagorean – Neoplatonic philosopher in Europe as well as a diplomat to the Byzantine Emperors, a jurist, historian (polyhistor), translator and an important social reformer and economist. Gemistus was responsible for the restoration of the Ancient Greek spirit in all of Europe and subsequently for the Renaissance.

He was born during the final years of the Byzantine Empire. He studied in Constantinople under the influence of noteworthy scholars such as Elissaeus and Demetrios Cydones. After witnessing the heinous crimes against philosophy and after his political and economical reforms were dismissed by the governing class, he eventually settled in Mystras, founding, at the time, the greatest philosophical and spiritual centre of the Byzantine Empire. There, Pletho, a name that he would later earn from the Italians thanks to his wisdom, dedicated himself to studying the Ancient Greek scriptures and reviving the Ancient Greek spirit and philosophy. He lived in a den, which he had decorated with all the Ancient Greek symbols and emblems necessary for him to tune in to the Ancient Greek frequency. There he meditated (Διαλογισμὸς) and communicated with the Divine Beings the same way as his forefathers did.

Pletho took upon himself alone a massive undertaking which similarly Emperor Julian had begun during the 4^th century – only to result to his assassination – of restoring the Ancient Greek spirit. He himself believed to have been a direct descendant of the Ancient Greeks. Basileios Bessarion had stated that Pletho was the wisest man Greece had given birth to since Plato and Aristotle and that he was the last of the Ancient Greeks. His philosophical school in Mystras attracted hundreds of enthusiastic students from Europe, seeking to help revive the Hellenism. Notable students included Bessarion, who would later become Cardinal and almost Pope, philosophers Marcus Eugenikos and Manuel Chrysoloras, Georgios Scholarios, who would later become his sharpest opponent, Italian humanists Marsilio Ficino and Cosimo de’Medici and many other philosophic minds of the Renaissance.

It wasn’t long until Pletho’s fame spread across the collapsing empire, eventually reaching Emperor John Palaiologos’ ears, who decided to include Pletho in his team of diplomats in the Council of Ferrara – Florence for the unification of the Orthodox and the Catholic Churches because of his great wisdom, even though Pletho was against Orthodoxy. In that manner, the emperor sought help in defending Constantinople from the Ottomans. Unfortunately, and despite Pletho’s excellent diplomatic skills, the treaty did not pass and Pletho, along with Bessarion and Patriarch Joseph chose to remain to Italy and spread the Platonic message. With the help of Cosimo de Medici, Pletho founded the Platonic School of Philosophy where he taught Plato and Aristotle and roused the crowds against the religious establishment which had destroyed and kept on destroying human progress. It was then that the fire of knowledge broke out and burned down the stagnated religious establishment and from all the knowledge that Pletho and the rest of the Greek philosophers had disseminated to the west started sprouting the new seeds of life and spirit, which would eventually become the Renaissance.

In his older years, Pletho resettled back to Mystras and wrote his magnum opus Περὶ Νόμων (On Laws), which was a result of meticulous studies conducted on Plato’s works and of a life-long meditation. The book included Platonic philosophy, guidelines for the search of truth, subjects on law making, on Gods, demons and divine beings from parallel worlds and from the sky, on life and death, on the origin and types of souls, journey and fate of the soul, immortality of the soul and soul of the stars, on the creation of mortal beings, on logic, on Eimarmeni and Pronoia. Moreover, he wrote books on astronomy, on the types of stars, capabilities of the planets, motion of the planets and the stars and of aether. His work included ethics, politics, sociology, education and mathematics.

Georgios Plethon Gemistus, died in Sparta almost at the age of 100 just 1 year before (or after) the Fall of Constantinople and subsequently of the Byzantine Empire, after nearly 1100 years of existence. His student Bessarion wrote on a letter to his two sons that “…(Pletho) abandoned the earthly element and went to the skies to dance the mystic dance of Iacchus together with the Olympian Gods… Since the time of those honourable men of the first years, Greece had not given birth to men such identical to Plato, in knowledge and in virtue”. He did not live enough to see the result of his work but just before the dwindling candle of Hellenism was put out, Pletho planted the seeds of the Renaissance in order for it to shine once again and pull Europe out of the darkness of the Middle Ages that it was plunged by religion. Alexander Papadiamantis wrote about Pletho: “He was so much ahead of the times he lived, as much as the ancient times were superior to these awful times…”. His remains were taken by Sigismundo Pandolfo Malatesta in 1465 from Mystras and transported to the Temple of Malatesta, Rimini, from his infinite love for the great hegemon of the philosophers of his times, where they are kept to this day. Together with his student Bessarion they share the title of “Father of Renaissance”.

Bibliography:

1. Ayfantis, Georgios. Anthropos & Epistimi – Enimerosis: Prehistory and History of Man, Science & Civilization. Athens: Hellinikon Selas, 2009. Print.
2. Baloglu, Christos. Georgios Plethon – Gemistus on the Peloponnesean Things. Athens: Elephthera Skepsis, 2002. Print.
3. “Gemistus, Georgios – Plethon”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.
4. Gravigger, Petros. Pythagoras and the Mystic Teachings of Pythagoreanism. Athens: Ideotheatron * Dimeli, 1998. Print.
5. Theodorakakos, Kyriakos. Plethon, Bessarion, the Dawn of New Hellenism. ΙΧΩΡ, February 2002, Issue 18, pages 72-87. Print.

Isidore of Miletus & Anthemius of Tralles

Architects, Mathematicians, Scholars, Engineers, Physicist, Inventor (Isidore), Writer (Anthemius) (6^th century), (c447 – 558)

Isidore was born in Miletus sometime during the 6^th century. He was a scholar and architect and was the founder of an engineering school in the Byzantine Empire. He taught physics and stereometric geometry, first in Alexandria and then in Constantinople. He compiled works of Archimedes and Euclid, wrote important treatises of his own and was rector of the Academy of Athens. In addition, he is credited with inventing an instrument for the measurement of hyperbolae. Anthemius was another brilliant architect and writer who taught geometry in the University of Constantinople. His profound knowledge on the conic sections enabled him to construct complex architectural marvels. Like Isidore, he had special interest on physics as proven by his researches on mirrors. Anthemius was also an engineer who created anti flooding systems for the capital.

Both had been students of the famous mathematician Proclus, who burned down the Goth’s fleet in 514 in Constantinople using a system similar to that of Archimedes from antiquity. Both were undoubtedly genius mathematicians and possessed extraordinary engineering skills, for which they were tasked in 531 with the construction of Hagia Sophia in the capital of the Byzantine Empire, the holiest Greek orthodox church dedicated to God’s wisdom.

Even before undertaking this difficult task, Isidore and Anthemius were already renowned throughout the world for their work individually. According to Paulus Silentiarius, Isidore was “the wisest of them all” while Anthemius was said to have reached the top of mathematical science. Words of their accomplishments had spread to every country until they reached Emperor Justinian’s ears in 531. He entrusted them with the creation of the Hagia Sophia and appointed them in charge of one hundred architects, each of whom was assigned 100 workers divided into two teams, each consisting of 5000 workers. In just 5 years, 10 months and 4 days, the temple had been completed.

Isidore and Anthemius represented the Greek architectural science. The shape of Hagia Sophia comes directly from the ancient Greek Stoa Basileios or Royal Stoa, where the people used to have gatherings. The sculptures, the mosaics and the art all reflect the glorious past of the Greek spirit. The golden altar, as well as all the holy relics was made of gold while the dome with a diameter of 31 meters seems as if it is floating in mid-air. Niketas Akominatos called it “earthly sky”.

Hagia Sophia is not simply a Christian temple; it is one of the wonders of architecture. It is a monument of insuperable beauty which stands today with its indomitable magnificence as a feat of modern architecture.

Bibliography

1. Pleuris, Konstantinos. Hagia Sophia, Athens: Hilektron, 2012. Print.

Michael Psellos

Philosopher, Writer, Scholar, Historian, Theologist, Statesman (1018 – 1096?)

Michael Psellos was a Platonic philosopher, regarded as one of the wisest men of the Byzantine era who served as the Byzantine State Secretariat under the rule of Emperor Michael V and Constantine IX. He studied law and philosophy in Athens and was a student of John Xiphlinus. Michael Psellos was a polymath; his work spanned the field of numerous sciences: philosophy, mathematics, rhetoric, astronomy, physics, alchemy, law, medicine, poetry and history.

Psellos was a distinguished lawyer and judge of Philadelphia. During Emperor Constantine’s reign he was appointed professor of philosophy and Rector of the University of Constantinople. During his career, Psellos held several important positions in the administration of the empire such as Prime Minister, Chief Representative of the Komnenos dynasty and Supreme Philosopher of the Byzantine Empire.

He developed the Platonic studies, wrote books on philosophy, mathematics, theology, medicine and astronomy and was primarily interested in alchemy and mysticism. His studies on Theurgy and Hermetism as well as his attempts to revive the Ancient Greek mystery schools led him to conflicts with the Church. Nevertheless, his contributions were an important step towards the Renaissance because he revived the lost works of the Ancient Greek writers so that years later Georgius Gemistus Pletho could begin the Renaissance.

As Rector of the University of Constantinople, Psellos revised the curriculum and placed the classical studies, primarily Homer, Plato and Aristotle in the first line of education so that future generations were imbued with the Ancient Greek spirit initiating the downfall of the religious establishment.

Bibliography

1. “Psellos, Michael”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print

Manuel Chrysoloras

Philosopher, Scholar, Writer (1355 – 1415)

A pioneer of the Renaissance, he disseminated the Greek studies in Italy and from there to the entire Europe. He was born about one century before the Fall of Constantinople. He became a student of Georgios Plethon – Gemistus, the leading figure of the Renaissance and founded a school in Constantinople, where prominent humanists from all over Europe studied.

In 1391 he was sent to Italy as a delegate of the Byzantine Emperor to seek help against the invading Turks. Even though his efforts failed due to the indifference of the West, he was wholeheartedly welcomed in Italy by the humanists.

In 1397 he settled in Florence, Italy where he became professor of Greek language and classical studies. He was the first one to hold a public teaching office of Greek language in Italy. His prominence attracted numerous enlightened Italian humanists, namely Niccolo Niccoli, Guarino da Verona, Roberto Rossi, Leonardo Bruni, Jiacopo Angeli da Scarperia, Pier Paolo Vergerio, Poggio Bracciolini etc, all of which became well known figures of history. Moreover, he taught in Pavia, Venice and Rome. Chrysoloras translated Plato’s Republic together with his students and wrote a Greek grammar, which became a widely used textbook in universities.

Following his successful career as a scholar, Chrysoloras left Italy and became a diplomat of Manuel Palaiologos. He travelled throughout Europe in an attempt to reunite the two churches during the West-East Schism.

For his polymathy and for his method of disseminating his vast knowledge to his students, Chrysoloras played a very important role in the development of the Greek studies in Italy and was compared to as the “sun”, according to Guirano da Verona, his most loyal student, “who illuminated Italy, which was drowned in the darkness”.

Bibliography

1. ”Chrysoloras, Manuel”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens. 1946. Print.
2. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Manuel Chrysoloras.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 11 Feb. 2016.

Constantine XI Palaiologos

Last Byzantine Emperor (1405 – 1453)

Constantine Palaiologos, the immortal Marble King, was born in 1405, at a time when the Byzantine Empire was at its final years. Having suffered from Iconoclasms, 2 bloody Crusades, the Latin invasion and countless raids by neighbouring clans, the Byzantine Empire had taken severe losses on its population, lands and its glory.

Before his time as an emperor, Constantine had liberated Peloponnesus from Frankian rule, together with his army and established a powerful operations center. He had then continued north and liberated parts of Steraia Hellada and Thessaly. His plans to continue and liberate northern parts of his empire, however, failed and he retreated back to Peloponnesus.

When John Palaiologos died childless in 1448, his brother Constantine succeeded him as Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. The coronation took place in Constantine’s hometown, the holy city of Mystras. He was the first and only Byzantine Emperor to be crowned outside of Constantinople. As soon as Constantine was crowned emperor, he was faced with a massive undertaking. With almost nothing left but Peloponnesus and a small part of Eastern Thrace, the empire was on the brink of collapse. His army was very small and his resources scarce. But the greatest challenge with which he was tasked was the enormous army of the Ottoman Empire that was rapidly approaching Constantinople, lead by Mehmed the Conqueror.

As emperor, he put all his efforts to keep the empire alive. His politics were different from those of his brother’s. John sought help from the West by participating in the Council of Ferrara-Florence. His attempts to reunite the Byzantine and Latin churches, however, failed. Constantine, on the other hand, was against the Latins, having been sworn enemies of the Byzantine Empire. His main concern was to defend Constantinople, otherwise, it would mean the end of a 1000 year old empire. When he arrived at Constantinople, he started organizing the army and strengthening the defenses of the city. He received help only from the Republic of Genoa, led by Giovanni Giustiniani.

The siege lasted for many days with huge casualties from the Ottoman army. Nevertheless, with an army of just 8500 against an army of 180.000, massive cannons and a fleet of 150 ships, it was only a matter of time before the city’s walls could hold much longer. Weakened, but determined, Constantine and his men showed unlimited courage and continued to defend the city with all their might. One day before the Fall, Constantine made his final speech, in which he addressed all his people in an effort to increase their spirit, saying among others that there were 4 reasons that they should prefer death over life: first for their faith, second for their homeland, third for their king and Jesus Christ and fourth for their families and friends. During the closure of his speech, with tears in his eyes, he prompted his men to fight till the death for Jesus Christ and their homeland.

On May 29, 1453, the Ottoman Turks breach the walls of the City and vast amounts of soldiers quickly surround Constantine and his faithful men. After having fought fiercely with a broken sword, Constantine falls like a lion beside his fellow men. It was the end of the Byzantine Empire, after nearly 1000 years of existence.

Legend has it that moments before his death, an angel appeared and took Constantine off his horse and into a cave, where he transformed him into marble. To this day, the Marble King awaits in his cave, the day that he will rise like the Phoenix to reclaim Constantinople and re-establish the Byzantine Empire, chasing the Turks faraway to the Red Apple Tree.

Bibliography

1. “Palaiologos, Konstantinos XI”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
2. TakJar. ΝΕΤ Η μήχανη του Χρόνου S02E16 Η Άλωση της ΠΟΛΗΣ. YouTube. February 2, 2012. Web. November 27, 2015.

Leo the Mathematician

Philosopher, Mathematician, Engineer, Inventor, Astronomer, Musician, Scholar (c.790 – unknown)

Leo the Mathematician, otherwise known as Leo the Philosopher, was a polymath from Thessaly, the greatest mathematical and philosophical mind to ever pass from Greece during the Byzantine era. Leo proved to be more than a theoretical mind, putting his mathematical knowledge into action by inventing some of the most extraordinary machines of his time.

In attempt to receive the best education as possible, Leo travelled to many monasteric libraries around the Byzantine Empire, where he studied the manuscripts. These manuscripts provided him with advanced knowledge on mathematics, philosophy, astronomy etc. He later studied formally in Constantinople until the Byzantine Emperor Theophilus invited him to become a teacher of private education.

Leo served numerous high rank positions due to his political influence. Most notably Leo served as archbishop of Thessalonica, Rector of the Pandidakterion school of Constantinople and head of the philosophical school of Magnaura Palace, where he taught philosophy, geometry, arithmetic, rhetoric and grammar. Cyril, who would later become a saint together with his brother Methodius, was one of his students.

In mathematics, he was the first to introduce numbers instead of letters in arithmetic and algebra. He transcribed and thus saved a plethora of Ancient Greek manuscripts, such as those of Plato, Apollonius of Perga, Euclid, Archimedes, Ptolemy and many others. Leo also made corrections on several astronomical errors and proposed his own ideas and models on the movement of planets.

Leo became well known for his groundbreaking inventions. He constructed a system of fire signal stations called Fryktories which enabled communication between these stations in less than an hour, considered as the first optic telegraph in history. These fire beacons stretched across Asia Minor, from Cilicia to Constantinople. Leo is mostly renowned and remembered in history for his automata, robots and machines that could function automatically. He built mechanical trees and birds, roaring lions, including an imperial throne which could levitate. According to Liutprand of Cremone, who witnessed his inventions 100 years after his death, the throne was decorated with bronze, mechanical trees filled with twittering birds. The throne was enormous, made of bronze and gold, guarded by mechanical lions that struck the ground with their tails and roared with open mouth. He describes how he witnessed the king, right before his eyes, being lifted as high as the ceiling of the hall in astonishment.

Unfortunately, most of Leo’s works have been lost. He is often overshadowed by other people named Leo, most notably Emperor Leo the Wise, who proved to be more popular in history. Nevertheless, Leo the Mathematician is acknowledged as one of the greatest medieval scientists in history.

Bibliography

1. “Leon o Mathimaticos”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
2. Ouranos11144. Leo the Mathematician. Youtube. April 27, 2013. Web. October 9, 2015.

Unknown Soldier

“Such were these men, worthy of their country. And for you that remain, you may pray for a safer fortune, but you ought not to be less venturously minded against the enemy; not weighing the profit by an oration only, which any man amplifying, may recount, to you that know as well as he, the many commodities that arise by fighting valiantly against your enemies; but contemplating the power of the city in the actions of the same from day to day performed, and thereby becoming enamoured of it. And when this power of the city shall seem great to you, consider then, that the same was purchased by valiant men, and by men that knew their duty, and by men that were sensible of dishonour when they were in fight; and by such men, as though they failed of their attempt, yet would not be wanting to the city with their virtue, but made unto it a most honourable contribution. For having every one given his body to the commonwealth, they receive in place thereof an undecaying commendation and a most remarkable sepulchre; not wherein they are buried so much, as wherein their glory is laid up, upon all occasions both of speech and action to be remembered for ever. For to famous men all the earth is a sepulchre: and their virtues shall be testified, not only by the inscription in stone at home, but by an unwritten record of the mind, which more than of any monument will remain with every one for ever. In imitation therefore of these men, and placing happiness in liberty, and liberty in valour, be forward to encounter the dangers of war. For the miserable and desperate men, are not they that have the most reason to be prodigal of their lives; but rather such men, as if they live, may expect a change of fortune, and whose losses are greatest if they miscarry in aught. For to a man of any spirit, death, which is without sense, arriving whilst he is in vigour and common hope, is nothing so bitter as after a tender life to be brought into misery”.

Excerpt from Pericles’ Funeral Oration by Thucydides, Translated by Thomas Hobbes