Suidas

Lexicographer (c.900)

The Suda or Suidas lexicon is a 1000 year-old encyclopaedia, the world’s oldest encyclopaedic dictionary as well as one the most valuable and significant spiritual works ever written in the Middle Ages. An ambitious undertaking containing hundreds of thousands of headwords from the Greek language, the Suda lexicon is a golden tool for archaeological and philological enthusiasts as well as for scholars all over the world.

The identity of the man behind the Suda lexicon is shrouded under a veil of mystery and hypotheses. The pseudonym Suidas, as noted by the Archbishop of Thessaloniki Eustathios, is identified as the person who wrote the dictionary; a greedy lover of knowledge who salvaged more than 30.000 lemmata from various different ancient sources which today have been lost. The name Suidas itself is of questioned origin. Some say that its letters represent the initials of a code. Others assert that it comes from the Latin word Guida, which means guide while others believe that it means moat or fortress. The fact that a team of editors known collectively as Suidas worked together to write the book is not excluded.

The encyclopaedia contains information with astounding details, most of which is found only in Suda and which would never have survived until today had it not been written down by the author. Most notably, it contains unique information on many Ancient Greek philosophers and writers, most notably Homer. The book follows an unconventional taxonomy of the lemmata; instead of being arranged alphabetically, they are arranged according to the phthongs with which they begin.

Whoever Suidas was, his contribution is recognized as an immortal consignment to the world of letters, the Greek philology and history. It is believed that Emperor Constantine VII the “Purple-blood”, who reigned during the years this book was written, contributed significantly to its publication.

Bibliography

1. Papagiannidou, Mairi. Lexicon Souida. Protoporia.gr. October 5, 2003. Web. Retrieved from TO BHMA in November 15, 2016.
2. Λεξικό της «Σούδας» ή της «Σουίδας». Vizantinonistorika.blogspot.bg. July 8, 2013. Web. Retrieved on November 15, 2016.

John III Ducas Vatatzes

Byzantine Emperor (c.1193 – 1254)

John Vatatzes was Emperor of Nicaea from 1222 to 1254. Contemporary and modern accounts place him among the greatest and most glorious Byzantine Emperors in the empire’s 1100 years of history. With his actions, he began the restoration of the Byzantine Empire’s former glory and prepared the ground for the reclaiming of Constantinople from the Latin Empire.

When Vatatzes assumed the throne of the Empire of Nicaea, the greater part of the Byzantine Empire, including Constantinople had fallen to the Latin Empire. Thus, the Emperor’s primary goal was to rid the Byzantine Empire of the Latins, reclaim Constantinople and re-establish the Byzantine Empire. He formed an alliance with Tsar Asen of Bulgaria in an effort to reclaim Constantinople. Even though the attempt was unsuccessful, Vatatzes managed to liberate a very large part of the Byzantine Empire, including all the lands of Asia Minor sans Nicomedia and the territories around Constantinople. With his strong naval forces he reclaimed the islands of Lesbos, Chios, Samos, Icaria, Kos as well as numerous other islands of the Aegean thus establishing his rule in the sea. Furthermore, he occupied Hellespontus, reclaimed Adrianopolis and annexed the Despotate of Epirus to his kingdom. In 1246 he defeated the Bulgarians and reclaimed Thessaloniki and in 1250 he signed a powerful alliance with the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Frederick II against the Latins.

The re-establishment of the Byzantine Empire which Vatatzes had envisioned was one step before realization. Unfortunately, in 1254 after suffering years from epilepsy, Vatatzes died at the age of 72 leaving his life-long dream incomplete. 7 years later Michael VIII Palaiologos would continue Vatatzes’ legacy and reclaim Constantinople from the Latins, thus fulfilling the former’s dream.

His politics were cantered on the priorities of the people. He supported the poorer classes of society and struggled to increase their living standards by giving land to the poor agriculturalists. In fact, he gave to the poor all of his wealth which he had inherited from his deceased parents. He promoted economic growth, built hospitals, nursing homes, poorhouses, libraries and. philanthropic houses. Moreover, he promoted Christianity by building temples, churches and empowering the monasteries. He fought against corruption, implemented a low taxation law, increased the exports and promoted culture. Notable scholars during his reign include George Acropolites and Nicephorus Blemmydes. Another important contribution was the fortification and restoration of the castles for the protection of the borders. The Akrites were also restored to action.

Vatatzes was an avid proponent of the unification of the two Churches and strived for its accomplishment. He was a charismatic leader, an honest and truthful man characterized by virtues, prudence and sincerity. He was far less brutal than most of his former predecessors; war was his last option whenever he had to deal with foreign enemies and always sought to deal with them peacefully through negotiations. For this reason he was called Ἐλεήμων (Eleemon, Merciful) and “Father of the Greeks”.

The people’s and the Church’s love towards him was such that half a century after his death, John Vatatzes was canonized by the Orthodox Church and is today recognized as a saint. His memory is celebrated in Greece on the 4^th of November, each year.

Bibliography

1. ΑΓΙΟΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΣ ΔΟΥΚΑΣ ΒΑΤΑΤΖΗΣ. Tripod.com. Web. Retrieved on November 2, 2016.
2. GREEKTV4E. ΓΡΑΜΜΑΤΑ ΑΓΙΟΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΗΣ ΒΑΤΑΤΖΗΣ. Youtube. December 14, 2013. Web. Retrieved on December 14, 2013.
3. Ο άγιος (& μεγάλος) πολιτικός: αυτοκράτορας Ιωάννης Βατάτζης. O-nekros.blogspot.bg. November 3, 2011. Web. Retrieved on November 3, 2016.
4. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. John III Ducas Vatatzes. Britannica.com. Web. Retrieved on November 2, 2016.

Bessarion

Philosopher, Cardinal, Scholar (1403 – 1472)

One of the two greatest spiritual figures of the Middle Ages and Father of the Renaissance together with his teacher and mentor Georgios Plethon – Gemistus. Bessarion, whose true name was John of Trapezus, introduced the Greek philosophy and virtues to Italy, played an important role in the council of Florence and occupied a high rank in the Vatican as cardinal. He was a humanist, a scholar, an erudite and a Platonic philosopher whose actions contributed greatly to the revival of Hellenism in the West and the downfall of the religious establishment that had besieged Europe.

He was born in Trapezus during the final years of the Byzantine Empire, a time when education and religion were interconnected and controlled solely by the Church. Nevertheless, Trapezus was renowned for its promotion of education and wisdom. From a young child Bessarion became acquainted with the ancient Greek philosophy and literature while studying in the library of the palace of Trapezus. He continued his studies in Constantinople and in 1437 he was appointed Archbishop of Nicaea.

Bessarion was a flaming patriot. Even though he was accused by the Greeks for having embraced the catholic dogma, he remained truthful throughout his entire life to the promise he made that day he met the wise Georgios Plethon – Gemistus in Mystras to raise Hellenism on their shoulders and walk the path of revival of the entire Ancient Greek spirit. He was an avid advocate of the unification of the two Churches – catholic and orthodox – as he believed that this would salvage Constantinople from falling into the hands of the Ottomans. Hence, both student and master were chosen to serve as important diplomats of the Byzantine Emperor in the council of Ferrara – Florence.

Following the ill-fated success of the council, Bessarion was asked to remain in Italy by the Pope, who admired him for his wisdom, eloquence and diplomatic skills and appointed him cardinal and later Archbishop of Constantinople. During his years as cardinal, Bessarion served as governor of Bologna. The city became one of Italy’s most prestigious cities and flourished both economically and spiritually. For this, Bessarion was named “protector of the city”. In addition, he promoted various reforms in the Church administration and acted as the Pope’s diplomat

Bessarion’s name attracted hundreds of eminent professors, scholars, mathematicians, philosophers and astronomers from all around Europe, who wished to become his students. These humanists formed his first circle of students that would later be perfected in Rome and be known as The Academy or Bessarion’s Academy. In the Academy Bessarion taught Platonic philosophy. The insuperable amazement for his wisdom was such that the humanists felt they were in Plato’s Academy. The eminence of the Academy mirrored that of Pletho’s in Florence and was always open to the Greeks, the Greek refugees and the humanists. Bessarion wrote numerous and significant treatises, his most magnificent being In Calumniatorem Platonis by which he introduced Plato to the West. He wrote books on mathematics and philosophy, and translated the works of Ancient Greek philosophers. Moreover, Bessarion salvaged 746 books in total containing the original works of Ancient Greeks, from all of Europe with his own expenses. These books he donated to the library of Venice and would later form the nucleus of the Biblioteca Marciana, St. Mark’s Library, which to this day stores Bessarion’s entire collection of books. The French historian Vast wrote that “… (Bessarion) during these days is the true hegemon of Venice, the great inspirer of the struggle… He is respected as much as the Doge and he has a greater prestige than him, because his is personal and does not come from his position.” He also said that Bessarion was “the official assignee of Hellenism in Italy and the most serious representative of the Renaissance”.

Basilios Bessarion, in spite of his old age and failing health never ceased struggling for his life-long dream: the rebirth of the Byzantine Empire. He organized by himself two major crusades and several other minor for the liberation of Constantinople but all of them ended up unfruitful. He dedicated all his life and fortune for the salvation of Christianity and the revival of Hellenism. He was detested by the establishment for his “barba graeca” (Greek beard), the symbol of the dedication of his soul to the Ancient Greek spirit. Twice he was nominated for Pope and twice he failed to be elected because of conspiracy against him. However, he was loved by those whose souls he touched and all those humanists to whom he imbued the immortal spirit of Hellenism.

In the end, he died in complete poverty. The seeds of Hellenism he and the immortal Pletho had planted and those of whom he had taught others how to plant, in the following years, began sprouting and as they sprouted, their roots destroyed the pillars of religion on top of which the Middle Ages and the Inquisition had been built. Eventually all the seeds sprouted the trees of the Renaissance.

Bibliography

1. Ayfantis, Georgios. Anthropos & Epistimi – Enimerosis: Prehistory and History of Man, Science & Civilization. Athens: Hellinikon Selas, 2009. Print.
2. “Bessarion”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
3. Gravingger, Petros. Pythagoras and the Mystic Teachings of Pythagoreanism. Athens: Ideotheatron * Dimeli, 1998. Print.
4. Theodorakakos, Kyriakos. Πλήθων Βησσαρίων Η Αυγή του Νέου Ελληνισμού. Retrieved from ΙΧΩΡ, issue 18. February, 2002, pages 72 – 87. Print.

Manuel Komnenos

Byzantine Emperor (1118 – 1180)

A brave warrior, skilled strategist and great patriot, Manuel Komnenos (or Comnenus) was born as the Komnenos dynasty’s third heir to the Byzantine throne during years of terrific political turmoil in the Empire. His efforts to revive the Byzantine Empire from the darkness in which it was plunged by his predecessors as well as to fix their mistakes and restore the Empire’s glory, even though they failed rendered him as one of the most important Byzantine Emperors in Greek history.

Prior to Manuel Komenos’ ascension to the throne, the Byzantine Empire was facing one of the darkest times in its history. The war against the Greeks had once again begun after a period of remission by his grandfather Alexios Komnenos and his son, both of whom served as Byzantine Emperors. Massacres, tortures, destruction and religious fanaticism were rampant in the entire Greek peninsula. When Manuel Komnenos ascended to throne he found himself confronted with an army mobilized by Alexios Komnenos consisting of militarized monks that had gained so much power that even the Emperor himself was enslaved to them, destroying everything in their path and imposing their power.

Manuel’s rise to power signaled a new era for Hellenism. Due to his love for the Greeks, for the first time in years Greek literature and astrology began to be republished while hostility toward the Greeks ceased. In addition, he proved himself to be a courageous man in battle. Michael Acominatus wrote that “(Manuel) was courageous by nature, reckless in battle and daring in the deeds worked by his hands” while John Kinnamos said “Whenever he appeared unexpectedly to them (the Turks), he seemed veritably a thunderbolt to them, and thousands, they say, should it be so, even tens of thousands, armed and armored men, shamelessly fled”.

Manuel’s attempt to diminish the power of the Venetians in the Byzantine Empire failed when he was obliged to compensate them after they retaliated by taking control of Chios. He made numerous campaigns in the East, travelled to Antioch where he fought against the Turks and the Franks and imposed the Byzantine rule while regaining the lands of Asia Minor. Moreover, he fought the Serbians, the Hungarians, fended off the Italian invaders from Greece during the second Crusade and signed a peace treaty with the enemy states.

Constant wars, however, led to the defeat of the Byzantine army in the Battle of Myriocephalon against the Turks and Manuel barely fled from captivity. This brought great exhaustion to the Empire, slowly after which began its downfall. By the time of Manuel’s death, the Byzantine Empire occupied all the lands below the river Danube, the north and south parts of Asia Minor as well as the eastern part of it until Phrygia and Pisidia.

Bibliography

1. “Manuel, Komnenos”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
2. Manuel I Komnenos (1143 – 1180). God’s Regents on Earth: A Thousand Years of Byzantine Imperial Seals. Cloacks.org. Web. September 15, 2016.
3. Misyris, Vasilis. Komnenoi the Anthellenic Emperors and the Exception of Manuel. Retreived from «ΙΧΩΡ», issue 18, February 2002, pages 58-68.
4. Ο Μανουήλ Α’ Κομνηνός και η μάχη του Μυριοκεφάλου 1176. Ψήγματα απὸ τὴν Ελληνική ιστορία. Blogspot.bg. Web. September 15, 2016.

 

Franciscus Maurolycus

Mathematician, Astronomer, Scholar (1494 – 1575)

His surname Maurolycos (Μαυρόλυκος) means “Black Wolf” in Greek, indicating his Greek descent. His parents fled from Constantinople after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 to Messina, Italy where Francesco Maurolyco was born during the dawn of the Renaissance. Maurolyco was an important representative of the scientific Renaissance who promoted mathematics and astronomy.

The first years of his career he worked as a scholar, teaching mathematics to the sons of the hegemonic family of Palermo and in the Lyceum of Messina. As professor of mathematics in the University of Messina, Maurolycus taught theory of music. Later in his life he devoted himself in writing original mathematical and astronomical treatises, the most important of which are Grammatica rudimenta, Cosmographia, Arithmetica, De Sphaera Liber Unus, De momentis aequalibus, Photismi de Lumine et Umbra, Diaphana, De conspiciliis, Opuscula Mathematica and Problemata Mechanica.

These treatises contain Maurolycus’ original works on the conic sections, the theory of numbers, numerous astronomical observations such as Maurolyco’s supernova (renamed to Tycho’s supernova), geometry and trigonometry. He studied the physics of the rainbow, optics, reflection and refraction of the light, examined the mechanical problems of Archimedes, worked on the quadratic equations and solid geometry and provided the first proof of mathematical induction.

Maurolyco worked on the restoration of ancient Greek mathematical texts. He completed the restoration of books IV and V of Apollonius’ of Perga Conics, translated into Latin the works of Euclid, Archimedes, Theodosius, Menelaus, Autolycus, Apollonius of Perga and wrote commentaries on pre-existing mathematical treatises.

Mathematics and astronomy were not his only interests. He published a collection of poems called Rime, wrote a book on the history of Sicily entitled Sicanicarum reum compendium, served as head of the mint of Messina and was appointed chief of the fortification projects of Messina. He was rightfully called “the brightest light of Sicily” by his contemporaries.

Bibliography

1. “Mavrolykos, Fragiskos”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1926. Print.
2. Francesco Maurolyco. School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St. Andrews, Scotland. History.mcs.st-and.ac.uk. Web. September 9, 2016.

Theodore Metochites

Statesman, Writer, Scholar (1270 – 1332)

Theodore Metochites was Prime Minister of the Byzantine Empire during the reign of Emperor Andronikos Palaiologos from 1282 to 1328. He was renowned for his knowledge, which he had acquired during his studies in Asia Minor as a youth and was considered in his own timeline as one of the greatest scholars and scientists of the Byzantine Empire.

Metochites’ involvement in politics began from an early age. Throughout his career he occupied many high-rank positions of power including General Logothete, involved with taxation and finance duties, Logothete of the Household, involved with fiscal and judicial duties and ultimately Grand Logothete, the highest rank of the hierarchy involved with the co-ordination and supervision of the government. As Grand Logothete he founded a library in Constantinople that was open to the public.

Like most Byzantine scholars, Metochites refrained from writing mostly original treatises. His most important work is Hypomnematismoi kai Semeioseis Gnomikai in which the writer makes personal comments and annotations on more than 80 different Ancient Greek and contemporary writers, on 120 treatises with philosophical and historical content namely Plato, Aristotle, Xenophon, Dion Chrysostomus and Plutarch. In the same book he explores themes such as Christian ethics and political issues. Other works include treatises on physics, physiology, poetry, rhetoric and psychology, commentaries on Plato’s Dialogues and on Aristotelian Logic.

Two are his most important treatises on astronomy: Preintroduction to Ptolemy’s Syntaxis and Elements of Astronomical Science. The books were important handbooks of astronomy containing theoretical and practical principles from Ptolemy’s books. The writer himself believed that astronomy was a science that linked man with God. With all the knowledge accumulated in his books, Metochites was able to predict solar and lunar eclipses. This knowledge was later disseminated to his students, who began a circle of astronomers, among them Nicephorus Gregoras, who presented original works in astronomy as well.

Evidently, Metochites was inspired by the Ancient Greek spirit. He devoted most of his life studying and reproducing the Ancient Greek writers. This proved to be of great importance during the laters years of the Renaissance. Because of his polymathy, is student Nicephorus Gregoras, another great philosopher of the Byzantine era, called him “living library” (ἔμψυχος βιβλιοθήκη).

Bibliography

1. Βυζαντινών Ἱστορικά. Μεγάλοι Επιστήμονες του Βυζαντίου – Θεόδωρος Μετοχίτης. Vizantinonistorika.blogspot.gr. August 24, 2016. Web.
2. Katsiaboura, Gianna. Θεόδωρος Μετοχίτης. Encyclopaedia of Hidrima Meizonos Hellenismou, Asia Minor. August 24, 2016. Web.
3. “Metochites, Theodoros”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.

Heraclius

Byzantine Emperor (c575 – 641)

Heraclius was Emperor of Byzantium from 510 until his death in 641. During his 30 year reign he dealt with multiple crises that had been plaguing the Byzantine Empire, most importantly the siege of Jerusalem by the Persians in 614, the massacre of Jerusalem and the transport of the Holy Cross to Persia, the economic crisis in 619 – 622, the invasion of the Slavs and the Avars in the Balkans, the conquest of the Holy Lands and the siege of Constantinople by the Muslims and their descent in Egypt and Mesopotamia.

When Heraclius ascended to throne, the Byzantine Empire was on the verge of total collapse. Lombards were roaming southern Italy, Avars had descended to Thessaloniki and the Persians had occupied the lands of Mesopotamia and were marching towards Syria and Antioch. Later they conquered Palestine, Jerusalem and the Holy Lands. Heraclius’ first actions were to wage war against the Persians and reclaim the Holy Lands. He began by building the defense of his empire, gave Serbia, Bosnia and Croatia to the Slavs and signed a peace treaty with the Avars. He organized the Byzantine army and campaigned against the Persians. He liberated Asia Minor, Pontus and Armenia from Persian rule after a series of victorious battles.

In 627 Heraclius began his fourth and last campaign against the Persian Empire. The decisive Battle of Nineveh (627) marked the victory of the Byzantine Empire over the Persians. Heraclius signed a peace treaty forcing the Persian Empire to retreat to its former borders, free its prisoners and give Heraclius the Holy Cross. When Heraclius returned to Constantinople he was hailed as Moses and was welcomed with the highest honours. The Holy Cross was transported back to the Holy Lands, which he had reclaimed. 14^th of September, the day which the Holy Cross was raised is celebrated to this day by the Orthodox Church.

After his conquest, the Emperor militarized and organized the administration of Asia Minor. He implemented the theme system (θέματα), administrative, military regions which proved to be very effective, if not revolutionary for the Byzantine army and economy. Mercenaries were replaced with natives in the army and were given agricultural land. For the first time, Greek was established as the official language of the Byzantine Empire, replacing Latin. Over the years, this movement of Heraclius resulted in the Hellenization of the entire Byzantium and the spread of Greek literature and philosophy.

Heraclius was described as an influential leader who was loved by the people. Even though deeply religious, he was not possessed by religious fanaticism. He has been regarded as an inspiring strategist who waged war against his enemies in a less inhumane manner; he did not massacre, burn down cities or treat prisoners of war with cruelty. Unfortunately because of his failing health he did not have the strength to defend his empire during the final years of his life when the Muslims became the major enemy of the Byzantine Empire.

For his political and administrative reforms, the reorganization, strengthening and Hellenization of the Byzantine Empire together with the reconquest of the Holy Lands Heraclius ranks highly among the Byzantine Emperors by contemporary and modern scholars.

Bibliography

1. ”Heraclius”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
2. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Heraclius” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 12 August. 2016.

Anna Notaras

Last Byzantine Emperor’s mistress (? – 1507)

1453 marked the year the Byzantine Empire reached its end after 1100 years of existence. Constantine Palaiologos, the last Byzantine Empire fell heroically in battle in an effort to defend the last remaining piece of Hellenism, Constantinople. Hundreds of Greek scholars fled to Western Europe where they started disseminating the Greek letters. Among them was a woman named Anna Notaras.

Anna Notaras was the daughter of Loukas Notaras, the Grand Duke of the Byzantine Empire and the lover of Constantine XI Palaiologos, the last Byzantine Emperor. A few days before the Fall of Constantinople, Anna, with the help and encouragement of Constantine gathered as many books as she deemed were the most valuable, among them also being Homer, put them in a small ship and fled alone to Venice, after biding her loved one her last farewell. In Venice, she remained alone with her books until she met Basileios Bessarion, who was cardinal at the time and took her in his custody. She was the only surviving member of the family; her father and brothers had all been beheaded by the Sultan while Constantine had sacrificed himself during the Fall.

Anna Notaras became the protector of the refugees; she founded a foundation for Greek refugees and with all the remaining money she had, she bought off as many imprisoned Greeks and scholars from the Turks as possible. Moreover, she founded the Center for Hellenic Studies and Greek Civilization, which would eventually become the Greek community of Venice. The following years coincided with the invention of the printing machines by Gutenberg. Anna gathered all of the valuable books she had managed to save and founded a printing office together with Nicolaos Blastos and Zachary Kallergis. Together they published the Etymologicum Magnum in 1499, the first “Greek child” as they called it. Their printing office published many works of the Ancient and contemporary Greek philosophers and became equivalent in value to that of Aldus Manutius.

The printing office was closed in 1501 and Anna died in 1509 in Venice. Her two trusted companions inherited her fortune while the Western world inherited all the knowledge Anna had managed to take with her on that small ship during that fatal day. It was this knowledge that was later disseminated throughout all of Europe that led to the rebirth of the Western Civilization and humanity’s salvation from the clutches of religious fanaticism. She was buried in the church of St. George in Venice, built entirely by the funds of the Greeks of the diaspora in her memory since it was one of her unaccomplished goals. Next to the gate there is a beautiful picture of Christ Pantocrator that Anna salvaged from Constantinople. She remained in history by many names. For some, she was the Emperor’s fiancé while for others she was the Great Duchess of the once powerful Byzantine Empire.

Bibliography

1. Brousalis, Karolos. Άννα Παλαιολογίνα Νοταρά: Η αρραβωνιαστικιά του αυτοκράτορα. Historyreport.gr. July 25, 2016. web.
2. Tziropoulou – Eustathiou, Anna. The Destruction of the Greek Libraries. Georgiades: Athens, 2014. Print.

Hypatia

Mathematician, Astronomer, Philosopher (c360 – 415)

Hypatia was the daughter of famous Greek mathematician Theon. She lived and worked in Alexandria, which, at the time was one of the leading centres of science and humanities in the world. After studying in Alexandria she travelled to Athens and enrolled in the Neoplatonic school of Proclus and Hierocles. She returned to Alexandria and became head of the Alexandrian School of philosophy and mathematics where she taught mathematics, astronomy and Neoplatonic philosophy as well as Aristotelean philosophy. Notable students of hers included Troilos, Hierocles and Synesius, later bishop of Ptolemais in Libya.

She was termed “Geometer” for her profound knowledge in geometry. She compiled works on conic sections, wrote books on astronomy, and devised the astrolabe, an instrument used to calculate the distance of the stars from the horizon. Her student Synesius would later perfect it. Like most philosophers, all of Hypatia’s works were destroyed and none survives today.

Hypatia is the first and only example of a woman philosopher in history. As much as she was admired and respected for her wisdom and courage to stand up against society’s belief that women were incapable of living a life of spiritual development, she was detested by the ignorant masses, which saw her as an insult to Christianity. It is unfortunate that Hypatia lived at the time when the Ancient Greek spirit was dwindling as Christianity began prevailing. The start of the Byzantine Empire was marked with religious upheavals, dogmatism, and religious fanaticism. In 415 a crowd of Christians incited by Cyrillus, bishop of Alexandria, seized her, tore her clothing, dragged her around the city, cut her into pieces with shells and burned her. Cyrillus was named a saint by the Christian Orthodox Church.

Bibliography

1. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. Ancient Greek Scientists. Athens: Georgiades, 1995. Print.
2. Pleures, Konstantinos. Greek Philosophers. Athens: Hilektron, 2014. Print.
3. “Hypatia”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.

4. ”Υπατία. Η Αλεξανδρινή φιλόσοφος που βασανίστηκε και δολοφονήθηκε από φανατικούς Xριστιανούς, που την έγδαραν και τη διαμέλισαν”. mixanitouxronou.gr. 20 Nov. 2014. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.

Basil II the Bulgar Slayer

Byzantine Emperor (958 – 1025)

Emperor of the Byzantine Empire whose reign spanned 49 years; during this time, the Byzantine Empire achieved considerable expansion, economic growth and safety from the neighbouring tribes thanks to Basil’s administrative policies and constant battles.

He ascended to throne at the age of 2 and government was undertaken by two capable warlords Nicephorus Phocas and John Tzimiskes, who served as Byzantine Emperors until Basil reached the age of 20 and undertook government duties himself. His first actions were to wage war against the Bulgarians, which had become a problem to the Empire. His campaign against them was unsuccessful and Basil only managed to save himself in Philippopolis. He then focused on fending off the rest of the enemies of the Byzantine Empire and was not involved with the Bulgarians for 15 years. During this time, Basil fortified the interior of the Byzantine Empire, provided more army to certain regions, conquered Iberia, Armenia and Syria and fought victoriously against the Arabs.

Basil’s reign was characterized by constant wars. These wars were aimed at defending the empire from continuous external threats as well as expanding itself to contain rich lands and enforce its economy, which was a prerequisite to sustain Basil’s costly polemic politics. When the time had come, he turned against the Bulgarian Empire for the second time. With the help of his appointed chief Nicephorus Uranus, Basil spent nearly all of the rest of his life battling against the Bulgarians and their king, Tsar Samuel. He managed to stop their procession to Peloponnesus and reclaim the lost lands of Northern Greece while in the meantime Nicephorus Uranos battled against the Arabs, claimed Antioch and signed a treaty for peace.

The 50 year-old conflict between the Byzantines and the Bulgarians reached its climax in 1014 during the battle of Clidium. It ended with the victory of the Byzantine Empire and the defeat of the Bulgarians. From that point onward, the Bulgarians surrendered to the Byzantine Empire and did not proceed to any significant conflict for 900 years. During his final years as Emperor, Basil became more lenient toward the Bulgarians; he provided them with political and religious autonomy and accepted several Bulgarians in the Byzantine aristocracy. Furthermore, the Empire now had access to all lands below Danube.

Emperor Basil’s tactics involving gruesome bloodshed and tortures made him fearsome among his enemies, which earned him the nickname “Bulgar-Slayer”. Nevertheless, he was a skilled and diplomatic emperor. His decision to marry his sister Anne with the Russian Tsar Vladimir, as well as the baptism of the tsar and his conversion to Christianity led to the spread of Christianity in all of Russia and the establishment of peaceful affairs between the two states. At the time of his death, the Byzantine Empire stretched from eastern Sicily and Italy to Armenia and modern Azerbaijan. In contained all of Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, modern Albania, Yugoslavia, Croatia, Cyprus, Odessa and regions from Lebanon and Syria. The Byzantine Empire was closing on its decline.

Bibliography

1. “Basileios B’”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.
2. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Basil II| Byzantine Emperor” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 17 July. 2016.