Bias of Priene

Judge (6^th century BC)

Bias was a poet, philosopher and statesman widely renowned for his rhetorical skills and his strong sense of justice. He was one of the Seven Sages of Ancient Greece who flourished in Priene during the 6^th century BC.

Few things are known about Bias’ life and work. His biography was written by Diogenes Laertius. As a judge, he would take only just cases. As poet, he wrote a poem composed of 2000 lines as well as numerous others which have been lost. As a statesman, Bias was never actually involved with politics on a practical scale. Nevertheless, he was involved in the salvation of his country from its siege by Alyattes, king of Lydia using an ingenious trick that he came up with that outwitted the king. In addition, he served as advisor of kings and generals concerning administrative and strategic subjects.

Bias is most renowned today for his sayings, which reflect his wisdom and sense of justice. Perhaps his most famous one is «Οἱ πλεῖστοι ἄνθρωποι κακοί» (Most men are evil). For this reason, Bias considered democracy an unsuitable political system. Other of his sayings include:

«Ἀνάξιον ἄνδρα μὴ ἐπαίνει διὰ πλοῦτον» – Do not honour the rich if he is a man without values.

«Ἄκουε πολλά» – Listen to many.

«Βραδέως ἐγχείρει· ὃ δ᾽ ἂν ἄρξῃ, διαβεβαιοῦ» – Be slow in considering, but resolute in action.

«Κτῆσαι ἐν μὲν νεότητι εὐπραξίαν, ἐν δὲ τῷ γήρᾳ σοφίαν. Ἕξεις ἔργῳ μνήμην, καιρῷ εὐλάβειαν, τρόπῳ γενναιότητα, πόνῳ ἐγκράτειαν, φόβῳ εὐσέβειαν, πλούτῳ φιλίαν, λόγῳ πειθώ, σιγῇ κόσμον, γνώμῃ δικαιοσύνην, τόλμῃ ἀνδρείαν, πράξει δυναστείαν, δόξῃ ἡγεμονίαν» – In your youth, seek to earn the means of a comfortable life, in your old age, wisdom. With your work you will acquire memory, with circumstances, respect, with your behaviour, bravery, with your efforts, temperance, with your fears, euseby, with wealth, friendship, with logos, persuasion, with silence, ornaments, with mind, justice, with boldness, gallantry, with your actions, power, with your good name, authority.

«Φρόνησιν ἀγάπα» – Love prudence.

«Πείσας λάβε, μὴ βιασάμενος» – Accept of things, having procured them by persuasion, not by force.

«Λάλει καίρια» – Speak when the time is right.

«Ὅ,τι ἂν ἀγαθὸν πράσσῃς, θεούς. μὴ σεαυτὸν αἰτιῶ» – Whatever good fortune befalls you, attribute it to the gods.

It is said that Bias died in old age in the court during pleading of one of his clients. The epitaph on his tomb, as quoted by Diogenes Laertius writes:

Beneath this stone lies Bias, who was born

In the illustrious Prienian land,

The glory of the whole Ionian race.

Bibliography

1. “Bias of Priene”. Wikiquote. Wikiquote.org. Web. Retrieved on October 28, 2016.
2. Bias of Priene. Livius.org. Web. Retrieved on October 27, 2016.
3. Pleures, Konstantinos. The persecution of the best elements of society. Athens: Hilektron publications, 2013. Print.
4. Seven Sages Series: the wisdom of Bias of Priene. Baringtheaegis.blogspot.bg. July 7, 2015. Web. Retrieved on October 28, 2016.

Empedocles

Philosopher, Physicist, Engineer, Inventor, Physician, Shaman, Musician, Poet (c480 BC – c430 BC)

Empedocles was one of the greatest pre-Socratic philosophers and is acknowledged as one of the brightest minds Greece ever gave birth to. He was a polymath who mastered philosophy, poetry, medicine and politics. He delved deeply into the nature of the human soul, explored the metaphysical world, researched the Cosmos and performed miracles, such as to be called a wizard, a thaumaturge, a shaman and even a God. Because of his insuperable wisdom and his obscure life and work, Empedocles passed into the world of legends.

Empedocles belonged to the Pluralistic school of philosophy. He was the founder of the theory according to which the Universe is comprised of 4 elements: wind, water, fire and earth. These four elements, when mixed together in different combinations and amounts create all things and all life. He deduced that the driving force of all these combinations were two counteracting cosmogonic forces: Love (Φιλότης) and Strife (Νεῖκος). Love acted as a force which drew the elements, or “roots”, together while Strife separated them apart. Love creates and Strife destroys. Empedocles asserted that these two forces constantly battle each other in an endless cycle in order for one of them to prevail; either Love, which tends to direct everything into a cosmic state called Sphaeros, where everything exists as a unity, or Strife, which directs everything into a state known as Acosmy, where everything exists as a distinct element. Together they direct the flow of the cosmic events. Empedocles believed that the universe was egg-shaped. According to him, living beings were originally without a specific shape or size and all matter was condensed into the shape of a sphere. By means of repulsive powers, matter was separated into the 4 elements causing whirling motions.

Despite the fact that Empedocles could have become ruler of his city-state for his tie-ins with the ruling class, he instead chose to walk around the streets of his beloved city practicing medicine, curing the sick and performing miracles. According to Heraclides of Pontus, Empedocles restored a woman to life who was not showing any breathing signs or pulse. On other accounts, Empedocles possessed supernatural powers such as hypnotism and telepathy. He prophesized, communicated with the Gods and daemons, controlled the rain and the winds and managed once to stop a man from killing another man by alleviating his anger using his lyre’s melody. Moreover, Empedocles partook actively in politics by abolishing tyranny and supporting democracy. He was honoured as a God in Selinous for implementing a system of hygiene which saved the lives of many people.

Founder of rhetoric science according to Aristotle and inventor of the water hourglass, Empedocles provided explanations on the function of the respiratory system and connected it with the blood circulation, researched the function of the eyes and proposed that they function similarly to a radar, studied electromagnetism and its effects while expressing the theory of magnetic flux, made important contributions on the physics of optics and acoustics, expressed that solid objects vibrate, discovered the pores of the human body by which perception is achieved and was involved in anthropologic, biologic and chemical studies. Empedocles worked on the origin of the species and on embryology. He wrote a huge number of books, only fragments of which survive today. His most notable ones are On the Nature of Beings, Epigrams and Purifications. The first one was a poetic and scientific work consisting of 3 books concerning Empedocles’ researches on physics, astronomy, physiology and pharmacology. The second one features noteworthy information concerning his philosophy. The third one is a metaphysical treatise that describes the fall of the soul to the world, the reincarnation and explores the supernatural world of magic.

Empedocles taught on the transmigration of the souls. His well-known phrase «Ἤδη γὰρ πότ’ἐγὼ γενόμην κοῦρὸς τε καὶ κόρη τε θάμνος τ’οἰωνὸς τε καὶ ἔνναλος ἕλλοπος ἰχθύς» (For I was once already boy and girl, thicket and bird and a mute fish in the waves) denotes that Empedocles had retained memories of his past lives and could recall having lived as many different life forms with different gender. Because the soul is immortal and is reincarnated whenever the mortal body is destroyed. With his work Purifications the philosopher aimed at redeeming the soul and making it capable of ascending to the Divine planes.

Empedocles believed that he himself was a daemon, a long-living being from the Divine planes that was banished to the mortal world. He was condemned to live a cycle of reincarnations lasting 30.000 years in order to atone for his sins. Having repeated so many transmigrations as different life forms, Empedocles reached his current reincarnation and redeemed his soul, becoming, as he says, an immortal god. Because through these transmigrations do men purify their soul, reincarnate as prophets, physicians, seers or rulers and in the end they attain divinity. Empedocles was all of the above four together. His teachings on the purification of the soul and its ascension to the Divine planes among the divine beings are Empedocles’ major consignment to philosophy and humanity.

Bibliography

1. Altani. Arritoi Logoi Hellenikos Dia-logismos Vol. 1 & 2. Athens: Georgiades, 2012. Print.
2. “Empedocles”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
3. Campbell, Gordon.“Empedocles”. Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Web. Retrieved on October 22, 2016.
4. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. Ancient Greek Scientists. Athens: Georgiades, 1995. Print.
5. Makrygiannis, Demetrios. Cosmology and Ethics of Democritus. Athens: Georgiades, 1999. Print.
6. Pleures, Konstantinos. Greek Philosophers. Athens: Hilektron Publications, 2014. Print.

Polybius

Historian, Statesman (c.200 BC – c.118 BC)

Polybius the Megalopolite is one of the most influential historians and historiographers to date, together with Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon and Pausanias. His work The Histories marks humanity’s first successful attempt in writing down world history.

Polybius’s main influence was his father Lycortas, who was in the epicenter of political events during the 3^rd century BC in the Roman Empire as statesman of the Achaean Confederation. He was also a very capable strategist. Another figure who acted as a role model on young Polybius was Philopoemen, another powerful military personality and friend of his father. Polybius later wrote a book entitled Life of Philopoemen which unfortunately does not survive. His life had many misadventures, as he was he was held hostage in Rome for 17 years until he was freed and allowed to return to Peloponnesus.

Like his father, Polybius was a very skilled diplomat and statesman who relieved the tensions between Achaea and Rome. It is worth mentioning that during hostilities that were evoked between the two republics Polybius exerted all his influence in achieving a peaceful settlement which would be positive for both. As Pausanias states, the gratitude of his homeland was such as statues of him were erected with the following two inscriptions: “Greece would never have come to grief, had she obeyed Polybius in all things, and having come to grief, she found succour through him alone” and “…he had roamed over all the earth and sea, had been the ally of the Romans, and had quenched their wrath against Greece”.

The Histories is by far Polybius’ most recognized work. It consists of 40 books spanning an extensive part of the Roman history from 264 BC to 146 BC. The main topic of his books concerns the Carchidonian war and the Achaean Confederation. His work’s purpose was to demonstrate how the Romans succeeded in conquering a large part of the world in just 53 years and to show that they were in fact a nation of empires. The 40^th book was a recap of all the previous books and included a timetable of all major events chronicled in the previous tomes.

Polybius’ work is one of the greatest written works in history to have survived from antiquity. His excellent knowledge on politics and war as well as his high ranking positions in the Roman Empire rendered him a remarkable analyzer of all the major events, which he himself knew from first hand experience. He is the only one of the Ancient Greek historians whose work has didactic purposes. It is commonly noted that his most influential book is the 4^th, which provides an extensive analysis on the Roman Constitution and its political system which, according to Polybius, was Rome’s key to success.

Polybius exerted a massive and direct influence on the founding fathers of the United States, who wrote the Constitution of the United States of America based on the principles of the Roman Republic as highlighted by Polybius in his book. After studying all the political systems, they found out that the republic of the Roman Empire was the strongest and the longest lasting.

Bibliography

1. Ferguson, Matthew. Polybius, Political Science and the United States Constitution. Adversusapologetica.wordpress.com. Web. November 25, 2013. Retrieved on October 14, 2016.
2. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. Ancient Greek Scientists. Athens: Georgiades, 1995. Print.
3. “Polybius”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
4. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Polybius” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 14 October. 2016.

Democritus

Philosopher, Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer (c.460 BC – c.370 BC)

The last of the pre-Socratic philosophers and co-representative of the atomic school of philosophy, Democritus was one of the most influential thinkers of Ancient Greece of all time. Together with his teacher and mentor Leucippus they introduced the atomic theory with the scientific meaning it has today. Like Aristotle, Democritus was a polymath who excelled in various different sciences, namely philosophy, physics, mathematics, astronomy, astrophysics, geography, oceanography, politics, psychology, ethics, art and pharmacy. Democritus was nicknamed “the laughing philosopher”; he laughed at everything because he considered everything around him risible.

He was born in Abdera to a rich family and was trained in the school of Leucippus and Anaxagoras. He devoted all of his family’s wealth to his spiritual travels in Asia Minor, Egypt, Persia, India, and Ethiopia, where he met some of the greatest minds of his era including Heraclitus, Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander and the Pythagoreans. Because Democritus had spent all of family’s fortune on knowledge, he was contemned by his fellow citizens and his brother was forced to provide for him. Nevertheless, Democritus, a man who had sacrificed materialistic life for spiritual development proved his value to the others when he predicted the celestial observations and earned olive oil in very cheap price, similarly to Thales of Miletus. When he read his book Μέγας Διάκοσμος (The Great Cosmos) to his fellow citizens, they acknowledged its price to 500 talanta (his inherited fortune was just 100 talanta).

Democritus’ (and Leucippus’) work can be broadly divided into scientific and metaphysical. While Leucippus was the one who introduced the atomic theory, it was Democritus who developed it and expanded it. In short, the basis of his philosophy is that everything is made of void and atoms. Void and atoms – the smallest unit of existence, those that cannot be divided further – are the origin (ἀρχὴ) of everything that exists. Everything else that exists is an illusion which we decode into reality using of senses and which we perceive as reality. Time is also an illusion (φάντασμα) while solid objects are actually not solid. Nevertheless, atoms themselves according to the philosopher have no perceptible quality. Instead, Democritus considered the atoms as immaterial archetypes which project shadowy representations of reality. He called the atoms “ideas”, similar to Plato’s theory of forms.

Atoms are infinite in number and infinite in shapes. In his book Μέγας Διάκοσμος (The Great Cosmos) Democritus describes the creation of worlds and stars by means of the spinning motion of the atoms. When atoms come into close proximity with each other – without ever coming into contact – they create complex objects such as human beings or superstructures of the macrocosmos. The existence of objects with different shape and sizes are the result of fusion of atoms with different shape, position and order. Wind, water, fire, earth and aether are all the result of such fusion of atoms. Additionally, the sun, the moon as well as the soul are made of atoms. Democritus also spoke about the atomic weight and the motion of the atom.

There exist an infinite number of parallel worlds which are continuously being created and destroyed when they collide with each other. They are very different from one another in size, and in their content, some of which do not possess a moon or a sun, while others do not support life. What Democritus meant with the term “worlds” is ambiguous as it could also mean galaxies or solar systems. Democritus believed in the principle of causality, according to which nothing happens without a cause (ἀνάγκη) and that everything happens because of necessity.

Democritus wrote at least 70 books, of which only fragments remain as references in the works of others. On physics, his most famous books were Μέγας Διάκοσμος (The Great Cosmos) and Μικρὸς Διάκοσμος (The Small Cosmos). These books, in addition to the atomic theory they included some of the most groundbreaking theories in physics such as a detailed description on the creation of worlds with its phases, the structure and characteristics of Democritus’ cosmologic system, the creation of stars and galaxies as well as numerous theories concerning celestial observations. Other books on physics include on planets, on cosmography, on nature, on human nature, on senses, on celestial mechanics, thermodynamics, acoustics, classical mechanics, on biology, zoology and geology. Furthermore, he wrote 5 mathematical books on geometry, arithmetic and logic, 8 books on astronomy, 6 books on engineering and art and 1 book on pharmacy. He developed a very significant political philosophy in which he believed that the archon must serve as the soul of the republic he rules.

Democritus’ philosophy and ethics aimed at making man a spiritually balanced and virtuous being. He taught what was right and just, but he did not impose it on others unless they chose to implement it in their lives. The main axes of Democritus’ philosophy are ethic consciousness, moderation, time – that is, the most suitable time to do something – and eudemonia. Democritus had a profound knowledge on the soul. He knew very well its weaknesses and struggled to help others improve them. He saw every individual as an atom – indeed in Greek language the word ἄτομον (atom) also means person – who each had their own shape, size and role on society. Man himself is a small representation of the universe.

Democritus attempted to conceive the true meaning of God and the Divine Beings. He managed to do so to a great scale. According to him, God is to the world whatever the soul is to man. The origin of the soul is from the Divine Beings. Therefore it is divine. Soul is what drives the human body. It is the link between the invisible divine world where the Divine Beings inhabit and the visible mortal world. It can be compared to an electrical current that empowers a computer. The soul is immortal and genderless. It is, however, wearable/ perishable (φθαρτὸς) together with the human body.

Through meditation, during his endoscopic flights, Democritus discovered the existence of divine entities, which are invisible but co-exist in the mortal world. Democritus called them daemons or eidola and correspond to the same beings mentioned by Socrates, Plato, Poseidonius and Pletho – Gemistus. Temples and statues act as channels which allow these beings to come to our world. Some men can communicate with them. Divine Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Orpheus and all of the wise ancient Greek poets received the information for their poems by means of this “divine inspiration”. Some of them are benevolent and some of them malevolent and depending on this, they guide the souls of men on actions. They are not imperishable but they are long-living beings. Democritus said that the air is full such beings.

It is asserted that, like all of Ancient Greece’s brightest stars, Democritus had been given this philosophy following this divine contact. But for this to occur, such men must have one of their senses much more developed than that of common men and Democritus assured us that there are more than 5 senses in the human being.

Bibliography

1. Ayfantis, Georgios. Anthropos & Epistimi – Enimerosis: Prehistory and History of Man, Science & Civilization. Athens: Hellinikon Selas, 2009. Print.
2. “Democritus”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas I. Athens, 1946. Print.
3. Diogenes Laertius, Lines of Eminent Philosophers. R.D. Hicks, Ed. Perseus.tufts.edu. Web. Retrieved on October 5, 2016.
4. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. Ancient Greek Scientists. Athens: Georgiades, 1995. Print.
5. Makrygiannis, Demetrios. Cosmology and Ethics of Democritus. Athens: Georgiades, 1999. Print.
6. Pleures, Konstantinos. Greek Philosophers. Athens: Hilektron Publications, 2014. Print.

Leucippus

Philosopher, Physicist (5^th century BC)

Leucippus was one of the most important Pre-Socratic philosophers and the Father of the atomic theory. He founded the Atomic philosophic School in Abdera where he taught philosophy and physics. He was a contemporary of Democritus, who was his student and successor. Two of Leucippus’ works are known that contain his entire philosophy: The Great Cosmos (Μέγας Διάκοσμος) and On Nous. Even though only fragments of them survive, it is now known that Leucippus founded a very influential philosophy, which comprised of two scales: a scientific, containing his teachings on the theory of the atom as well as his cosmologic system, and a metaphysical one.

It is difficult to draw a distinguishing line between Leucippus’ and Democritus’ philosophy because it is not known to which philosopher belong certain contributions of the philosophy. Hence, their work is studied as one, even though Leucippus is commonly overshadowed by his student as far as concerning the atomic theory.

Leucippus was the first recorded in history to have spoken about the atom in a scientific manner. Prior to them, Thales of Miletus, Anaximander and Heraclitus believed that the primary elements that composed the world were the earthly elements. Leucippus asserted that the world was composed of an infinite number of particles, invisible to the human eye because of their small size, moving perpetually in the infinite, empty void. He called these particles “the atoms”. Their name means those that cannot be divided into smaller pieces, meaning the smallest unit of existence. Atoms cannot be destroyed or created. According to Leucippus the atoms formed the being, because of their solid nature, while the non-being, the void, was devoid of atoms and served as the place where the being moved. Leucippus asserted that the atoms had infinite shapes. Their differences are the reason for the differences in the size, shape and order of different objects. Atoms are constantly moving in the void because of an external force. When some of them collide, they combine with each other without coming into contact with one another thus forming complex objects and bodies. Leucippus believed that atoms had weight.

The cosmologic system presented in Democritus’ Mikros Diacosmos is believed to have been introduced by Leucippus in his book Megas Diakosmos and then developed by Democritus himself. The book deals not only with the atomic theory, but also with the creation of worlds and their destruction, as well as the existence of parallel worlds. It is not exactly clear what the philosophers meant with the term world. Leucippus and Democritus explain that the universe is infinite. It consists of the whole and the void, both of which constitute the elements. Infinite parallel worlds exist dissolved in the elements. When an unlimited number of atoms of different shapes are carried from the infinite to the void of empty space, they collect and form a vortex where they spin chaotically until they can no longer spin. Bodies with different weight divide from each other with the lighter ones going outside and the heavier ones collecting inside, forming the core. Thus, a sphere is created, which grows larger by the influx of atoms that it adds to itself. This is how worlds, according to Leucippus and Democritus, are created. They then explain about the creation of the stars, the solar systems and their destruction back to atoms and void, the characteristics of such cosmological systems as well as various celestial phenomena of our solar system. Modern science has vindicated the philosophers’ cosmological system in many points.

Leucippus introduced the principle of causality, according to which nothing happens without a cause (ἀνάγκη). In the Leucippean – Democritean cosmological systems everything happens because of necessity. Worlds and beings are created on the unification of atoms and are destroyed when atoms are separated from each other. Only atoms, the void and the primary elements exist in reality. Everything else is nothing more than an illusion which we perceive as reality with our senses. Materials are not actually solid. They are shadows which we decode as materials. Therefore, truth, as the two philosophers claimed, comes not from our senses, but from the mind.

The atomic school’s philosophy was very daring for its time, way ahead of many other theories on the creation of the world and the architecture of reality. Perhaps one day in the distant future, Leucippus’ and Democritus’ theories may be proven scientifically correct.

Bibliography

1. Ayfantis, Georgios. Anthropos & Epistimi – Enimerosis: Prehistory and History of Man, Science & Civilization. Athens: Hellinikon Selas, 2009. Print.
2. Diogenes Laertius, Lines of Eminent Philosophers. R.D. Hicks, Ed. Perseus.tufts.edu. Web. Retrieved on October 5, 2016.
3. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. Ancient Greek Scientists. Athens: Georgiades, 1995. Print.
4. Makrygiannis, Demetrios. Cosmology and Ethics of Democritus. Athens: Georgiades, 1999. Print.
5. Pleures, Konstantinos. Greek Philosophers. Athens: Hilektron Publications, 2014. Print.

Pedanius Dioscorides

Physician, Pharmacist, Botanist (40 – 90)

The “Father of Pharmacology” and founder of pharmacy as a science. Dioscorides (or Dioscurides) studied medicine in Tarsus and flourished in Rome, during the years of Emperor Nero and Emperor Vespasian. He was also a botanist and travelled all around the world collecting 600 herbs and plants that he used for medicinal purposes. He preceded Galen by 90 years.

Dioscorides was the first to concoct pharmacochemical substances for experimental and therapeutical purposes, therefore founding also the science of Clinical Pharmacology, an important medical specialty to this day. Moreover, he developed pharmacognosy to a great extent, systematized prescription writing and worked as a surgeon close to the Roman Emperors.

According to Suda, Dioscorides wrote 24 books on pharmacology. His most monumental work is De Materia Medica, a book that served as the primary textbook of pharmacology and pharmacopoeia for 16 centuries in all of Europe and Western Asia and was the greatest book of pharmacology during this millennium and a half. The book consists of 5 volumes. Volume 1 Aromatics contains detailed descriptions of 517 drugs such as plants, roots, extracts as well as recipes for aromas, oils, frankincense, ointments, tree extracts, decoctions, balsams, herbs and fruits for medicinal purposes. Volume 2 Animals to Herbs contains the description of 142 drugs of animal origin. It also presents the animals and their products which can be used therapeutically such as milk, honey, fat etc. Finally, it includes cereals, grains and vegetables. Volume 3 is a book on plants, herbs, plant extracts, oils and seeds. Volume 4 is a continuation of the 3^rd volume and contains descriptions of 69 trees. The fifth volume deals with medicinal vines, wines, water, minerals and numerous inorganic drugs. Anaesthetics, opioids, sedatives and hypnotics, the cannabis and the mandragora, all of natural origin are described in Dioscorides’ book. In addition, there are descriptions of 600 herbal drugs and botanies and their pharmacodynamics from different parts of the world. In total, the colossal book De Materia Medica contains descriptions of more than 1000 drugs.

Other surviving books of Dioscorides include Peri Jobolon, Pharmacognosia, a book on pharmacognosy, On Crude Drugs, which consists of 2 books containing descriptions on the diseases of organs of the human body and the drugs which correspond to the treatment of each disease and On the benefits or disadvantages of the actions of the drugs, which contains the side effects of drugs.

Dioscorides’ influence on the medical world was immense, especially through his book De Materia Medica, which was translated into most European languages and in Arabic and was first printed in 1499 by Aldus Manutius in Italy. With this book Dioscorides undoubtedly taught pharmacology to the Romans, the Venetians, the Hebrews, the Arabs, the French etc. Most of the drugs presented in his books are used by medicine effectively to this day.

Bibliography

1. “Dioscorides”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
2. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. Ancient Greek Scientists. Athens: Georgiades, 1995. Print.
3. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Pedanius Dioscorides”. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. September 25, 2016.
4. Tziropoulou Eustathiou, Anna. O en tei Lexei Logos. Athens: Georgiades, 2011. Print.
5. Tziropoulou – Eustathiou, Anna. The Destruction of the Greek Libraries. Georgiades: Athens, 2014. Print.

Terpander

Musician, Lyric Poet (7^th century BC)

Terpander’s life and work are intermixed with mythical elements. According to Suda he was a descendent of Homer while according to other legends he was a descendent of Hesiod. When and where Terpander was born is also not known but is estimated to have been born in the island of Lesbos around the 7^th century BC. He was one of the greatest ancient Greek musicians and one of the founders of lyric poetry.

According to tradition, Terpander travelled around Greece singing the works of Homer and Hesiod, as well as songs that he had written. After the 1^st Messenian War that plaged Sparta, Terpander was called by the Oracle of Delphi to go to Sparta in order to alleviate their passions with his music. Around 676 BC Terpander won first place in the Carnean musical contest in Sparta. He won 1^st place 4 times in the Pythean musical contest, which were held only every 9 years. His fame skyrocketed to the point where being placed second after Terpander as a musician was a high privilege.

Terpander was a musical genius who brought many innovative changes to music and lyrical poetry. He reconstructed and perfected the lyrical element of music, introduced the 7-string kithara (lyre) into music, invented the varviton, a musical intrument and founded a musical notation system and the Terpandreian Laws of music, which were musical tracks used to sing Homeric verses and verses from other epics. Tradition also marks him as a very special reformer of literary lyricism. He founded a new type of lyrical poetry which he termed “Νόμοι” (Laws) and was the first to write poems accompanied with musical notes. He wrote numerous lyrical poems almost none of which survive today.

Bibliography

1. “Terpandros”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
2. “Terpandros”. Live-pedia.gr. Web. Retreived on September 23, 2016.
3. «Ποιος ήταν ο Τέρπανδρος;». Τέρπανδρος Λόγος και Τέχνη. WordPress.com. Web. Retrieved on September 23, 2016.

Carneades

Philosopher (214 BC – 128 BC)

Carneades was born in Cyrene, a Greek colony of North Africa. He came to Athens to study in Plato’s Academy and later served as headmaster of the Academy from 156 BC until 131 BC when he was succeeded by Cleitomachus. He was of the probabilistic school. His philosophy was primarily involved with skeptisicm, epistemology (the science of knowing) and ethics and received influences from Chrysippus, whose school he liked proviking. He was also an excellent rhetorician.

Carneades stated that definitive knowledge cannot exist because nor our senses nor proofs can provide us with certain truth. Even though truth and false existed, Carneades believed that man could not distinguish between the two because our senses deceive us while proofs are based on unproven axioms. This could only happen in illusions or dreams.

Carneades’ skepticistic philosophy placed all of his philosophic predecessors under his critisicm, especially the Stoics. Carneades spoke against God, saying that the Stoic’s dogmas on God had contradicting arguments (antinomy). The Stoics claimed that the fact that all the peoples of the world believed in God was a proof of God’s existence. Carneades, however, stated that this did not prove God’s existence rather that there is a common belief in man to believe in God. God was not a living being, because otherwise he would decay, he was not virtuous or brave because he did not face any situations in which he could prove so, and was not anthropomorphic, but a transcendental being inconceivable by human thought.

The probabilistic theory, which Carneades established, stated that only the knowledge of probability is perceivable to man. Probability has three grades which accompany the images of the external world. The first grade is made up of images which seem probable without their reliability being supported by that of other images. The second grade contains images whose probability does not come into conflict with other images while the third grade is made up of images that when examined in full detail are not contradicted in any way with even the most unrelated images.

It can be said that Carneades was in a way the founder of critical philosophy, not so much because his predecessors did not examine or judge ideas or arguments but rather because Carneades’ philosophic examination was the subject of a new philosophical wave. His philosophy turned man to mysticism because when he could not find the truth using logic, he would try to find it using the illogical part of his soul.

Bibliography

1. “Carneades”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
2. “Carneades”. Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Stanford.edu. Web. Retreived on September 21, 2016.
3. Pleures, Konstantinos. Greek Philosophers. Athens: Hilektron Publications, 2014. Print.

Apollonius of Perga

Mathematician, Astronomer (c.262 BC – c.190 BC)

He is known as “The Great Geometer”. He was a contemporary of Apollonius of Rhodes, Eratosthenes and Archimedes, who was 25 years older than him. He studied in Alexandria and later became a scholar there. His works, primarily on the conic sections, influenced hundreds of mathematicians throughout history, from Pappus, Hipparchus and Proclus to Vieta, Descartes, Dessargues and Fermat. He is the third greatest mathematician of antiquity next to Archimedes and Eudoxus and the third greatest Greek mathematician of all time.

While in his youth Apollonius wrote his treatise Conics. It is considered his magnum opus and consisted of 8 books. Books 1 to 4 survive in Greek, books 5 to 7 in Arabic while book 8 is lost. They were written in Alexandria and were further furnished in Pergamum before being published. They provide the first systematic study on the conic sections. The mathematical terms “eclipse”, “hyperbola” and “parabola” are first established. He was the first to show that the conic sections are actually curves from sectioned cones and planes, regardless of their angles and managed to solve second degree equations using conic sections.

Apollonius is the founder of Analytical Geometry. Professor Max Simpson writes in his book History of Mathematics in Antiquity: “As untrue as it is, that Galileo, Fermat, Leibnitz, Newton discovered Calculus, while they exist in the works of Archimedes, […] that much untrue is that the modern scientists discovered Analytical Geometry, which are found in the works of Archimedes and Apollonius”.

The only other book that has survived from Apollonius’ collection is a book on the solution of the doubling of the cube. The works that did not survive are namely the following: De Rationis Sectione, consisting of two books in Arabic translation, De Spatii Sectione (Cutting of an Area), De Tactionibus, De Inclinationibus, a book which contained 125 theorems and which Halley attempted to re-synthesize and De Locis Planis. All these books have been grouped under the name “Geometrical Analysis”. In addition, Apollonius wrote On the Cylindrical Helix, On the Comparison of the dodecahedron and the eicosahedron, Peri Atakton Alogon. Furthermore, he wrote the Ὠκυοτόκιον (Quick Bringing-to-Birth) was a book containing Apollonius’ method of finding the true value of π with greater precision than that of Archimedes, the Not–At–All Treatise (Ἡ Καθόλου Πραγματεία), which contained the foundation of the geometric science, On the Burning Glass, which was about parabolic mirrors used to light fire and finally a treatise on astronomy whose name did not survive concerning phenomena of the sun and the moon as well as the anomalous motion of celestial bodies. Ptolemy references him as having proven two significant astronomical theorems. Finally, Apollonius invented two machines: the first clock, a sundial-like clock and the hydraulus, a musical instrument.

The contributions of Apollonius as a mathematician, astronomer and inventor are unique. Conics is one of the greatest treatises of higher mathematics from the ancient world to have survived, together with Euclid’s Elements and Archimedes’ Palimpsest. It is also the most perfect work on conic sections ever written, with none of his successors ever having surpassed its perfection. While the Ὠκυοτόκιον (Quick Bringing-to-Birth) is considered by modern scientists to be the prodrome of the theory of arithmomechanics (calculators). He is also considered to be one of the founders of mathematical astronomy, together with Eudoxus. He was portrayed on the 50 drachma banknote of Greece and today, a lunar crater bears his name.

Bibliography

1. Apollonius of Perga. School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St. Andrews, Scotland. History.mcs.st-and.ac.uk. Web. September 18, 2016
2. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. Ancient Greek Scientists. Athens: Georgiades, 1995. Print.
3. Koutoulas, Diamantis. The Ancient Greek Religion and the Mathematics. Thessaloniki: Psaras, 2001. Print.
4. Δημόφιλος, Ίων. ΟΙ ΒΑΣΕΙΣ ΤΗΣ ΑΝΑΛΥΤΙΚΗΣ ΓΕΩΜΕΤΡΙΑΣ ΑΠΟ ΤΟΝ ΑΠΟΛΛΩΝΙΟ ΤΟΝ ΠΕΡΓΑΙΟ. 23.09.2009. freeinquiry.gr. Web. September 18, 2016.

Aeschylus

Tragedian (c.525 BC – c.455 BC)

The greatest tragedian who ever lived; together with Sophocles and Euripides they form the holy trinity of tragic poetry. Aeschylus was the creator and main reformer of the Greek drama who gave it the meaning and glory for which it is renowned. A titanic innovator, a remarkable musician, poet, architect and director, none of his successors ever reached the level of his capacity, ingenuity and wisdom.

Prior to him, there was only one actor on stage, who portrayed various characters by changing masks and could only either engage in monologue or converse with the chorus. Aeschylus changed this by adding a second and then a third actor on stage thus enriching the dialogue and evolving the theatre to whole new level. According to Aristotle he reduced the role of the chorus and gave the primary role to the leading character. He decorated the set, worked as a choreographer, composed the music, designed the costumes, created the characters and acted himself. The spectators felt themselves surrounded by the Gods watching the divine events.

The master tragedian combined the art of theatre with philosophy. His primary theme in most of his surviving plays is justice. He wanted to convey the message that justice has many components. As such, just characters frequently come into conflict with one another. But righteousness never takes sides. As the great tragedian said “τὸ δίκαιον μεταβαίνει» (justice moves). Unjust acts give birth to crimes and the only remedy to this perpetual generation of evil is virtue, which the Greeks had imprinted in their souls with the words Μηδὲν ἄγαν (nothing in excess).

Aeschylus wrote about 100 plays. According to the Suda lexicon Aeschylus won first place 28 times first place. His plays were inspired from mythology, theogony, the Orphic myths of the Argonauts, Homer and Hesiod as well as from his personal experiences during the Battles of Marathon and Salamis, in which he fought bravely together with his brother. Another important source of his plays was the mystery schools. 7 of his plays survive today:

• Suppliants (Hiketides) is about the Danaids, who flee with their father to Argos to avoid their forced marriage with their cousins. The sense of justice, which for the Greeks is a synonymous to the “rhythm of life” and the “harmony of the worlds”, is explored in depth by the poet. It was part of a trilogy and is one of Aeschylus’ oldest tragedies since it follows the archaic structure.
• Persians (Persai) is a play of triumph that glorifies the Battle of Salamis. It is concurrently a monumental work that immortalizes the Greek resistance against the Persian Empire and their love for freedom.
• Seven Against Thebes is a beautiful yet dramatic story that deals with the rivalry and clash of Eteocles and Polyneices, the two sons of Oedipous and the subsequent downfall of the Theban royal family. The play explores the themes of fratricide, patricide, consanguinity and divine justice. It was the third and last of the Oedipous trilogy.
• The Oreseetia trilogy was comprised of three interconnected plays Agamemnon, Choephoroi and Eumenides. In the first one the tragedian dramatizes the assassination of Agamemnon by his wife Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus. In the second play Orestes murders his mother Clytemnestra as a vengeance for his father’s death. The third play of the trilogy involves the Gods, who vindicate Orestes for his matricide. The Erinnyes, the “Furies”, are transformed into the benevolent Eumenides, the “Kind Goddesses and harmony is restored. The Oresteia is widely considered as the greatest tragic poetry ever written.
• Prometheus Bound was the play in which Aeschylus revealed the secrets of the Mystery Schools. Prometheus is punished by Zeus for handing down fire (knowledge) to mankind from the Gods. Through this knowledge man became an inventor. Power (Zeus) and Freedom (Prometheus) clash with one another with Prometheus – the freedom that is harmonized with the laws of the universe – taking over. Prometheus is the embodiment of all the struggles, pain and passions of humanity. Like the former, it too was part of a trilogy.

Aeschylus was among the chosen ones of the Muses, to whom they revealed themselves. Like Homer, Hesiod, Orpheus, Pindar, Euripides, Sophocles, etc, the Muses stimulated Aeschylus’ soul, giving him the ability to narrate and glorify the heroic labours of men and Gods so that to act as a paedagogue to the viewers who witnessed his plays. The poet acted as a channel to deliver the Muses’ optic presentations to the spectators, who received the information through the symbolic actions of the heroes and the Gods. This would provide the best example and the most powerful method to bring the mortal man in contact with the Divine. Aeschylus’ plays were not for money or for entertainment. Decoding and understanding the divine information led to lytrosis and eventually the conquest of immortality. This was the reason why Aeschylus and all his contemporary playwrights were described as sages. This was the reason why ancient theatre had therapeutic and didactic purposes.

Bibliography

1. “Aeschylus”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
2. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Aeschylus”. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. September 8, 2016.
3. Tziropoulou – Eustathiou, Anna. The Destruction of the Greek Libraries. Georgiades: Athens, 2014. Print.