Apollonius of Rhodes

Librarian (295 BC – 190 BC)

Apollonius is one of the chief representatives of epic poetry of the Hellenistic era. During the reigns of Ptolemy II and Ptolemy III Apollonius served as chief librarian and scholar of the Library of Alexandria. His best known work is the Argonautika (Jason and the Argonauts), an epic based on the homonymous Orphic myth that tells the story of Jason and the Argonauts on their quest to find the Golden Fleece.

In spite of his name, Apollonius was born in Alexandria and studied in the Museum of Alexandria under the influence of Callimachus, who would later become his greatest adversary. From a young age, Apollonius wrote his epic Argonautika and presented it in a poetic contest. After losing to his teacher Callimachus, Apollonius fled in disgrace to Rhodes, where he became an honorary citizen and founded a school of rhetoric. While in Rhodes he revised and perfected his work, ultimately gaining fame and prestige among his fellow citizens. He then returned to Alexandria where he regained his position as chief librarian of Alexandria, after succeeding Eratosthenes, until his death.

Recent evidence by numerous writers and researchers, most notably by Henriette Mertz, now suggest that Jason and the Argonauts did exist thousands before the age of Homer and that they crossed the Atlantic Ocean and sailed to the Americas in search of gold. Henriette Mertz, known for her works on Homer recreated the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts by travelling herself multiple times in the Americas, visiting the places that the Argonauts had did using Orpheus’ myths and Apollonius’ book as a guide. Her remarkable findings, in conjunction with all the other findings of her fellow researchers evidently show that the Argonauts’ voyage was a quest to find the secret of gold and bring it back to Greece. Gold was allegorically portrayed as a golden fleece because sheep skin was used to catch gold nuggets from rivers in which they were found. Their journey can be compared to that of the two Byzantine monks who travelled to China in search for silk.

Back then, Apollonius was not a homo unius libri, as he came to be known today (for his work Argonautika). He was a polymath, a writer and scientist who compiled several scientific works, none of which survives. Other works include poems such as On Archilochus, On Zenodotus, historical works such as Ktiseis, which is about the foundation of cities like Alexandria and Rhodes and annotations on the works of Hesiod, Antimachus and Homer, by whom he was heavily influenced.

Bibliography

1. “Apollonios o Rhodios”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.
2. Apollonius of Rhodes. Argonautika. Kaktos: Athens, 1999. Print.
3. Lahanas, Michael. Apollonius of Rhodes. Mlahanas.de. Web. August 30, 2016.
4. Ayfantis, Georgios. Anthropos & Epistimi – Enimerosis: Prehistory and History of Man, Science & Civilization. Athens: Hellinikon Selas, 2009. Print.
5. Mertz, Henriette. The Wine Dark Sea. Athens: Nea Thesis, 1995. Print.

Chrysippus

Philosopher (281 BC – 204 BC)

Chrysippus was a post-Socratic Stoic philosopher of the Hellenistic period. He was also an athlete, orator and physicist. He was student of Cleanthes and Zeno of Citium, the founder of the Stoic School of philosophy, whom he succeeded as chairman of the Stoic School. His contribution in Stoic philosophy was so great that he surpassed his teacher and founder of the school and earned the title of “second founder” of the Stoic School. It was said that “Without Chrysippus there would have been no Stoa” while Carnedaes, the fourth chairman of the School said “If Chrysippus had not existed, neither would I”. In general, the philosopher was involved with 4 branches of philosophy: epistemology, metaphysics, logic and ethics.

Chrysippus defined “presentation” as a heteriosis (ἑτερείωσις), meaning the change caused to the soul by the assimilation of information and knowledge from the beings. He believed that the soul was a tabula rasa whose content was enriched by this assimilation. Chrysippus argued that perception shows a person’s inner state and energies. Perception gives birth to memories and memories create experience. By means of syllogism conceptions are created. Conceptions which are naturally created, without deliberation, are termed prolepsis (προλήψεις) by Chrysippus. Conceptions which are created as a result of our own instruction are called simply conceptions.

Metaphysics were of particular interest to him. He was a monist. He believed that the primary substance of beings is one. The world and all the beings are created by God. God is the most perfect, good and philanthropic being because he is created of the most perfect material and is the soul of the world that rules over it. Chrysippus accepted that God is omnipotent and the universes are to the world that which the soul is to the body of man. Because God is the soul, the nous (intellect), the logos, the nature, the destiny, the providence, the common Law that that gives spirit and life to every being. The philosopher said that while man’s soul is found everywhere in his body, its dominating part called the hegemonic (ἡγεμονικόν) resides on the same place where the soul of the universe is so that when God creates life he uses a part of himself. Everything according to Chrysippus is defined by a purpose.

Chrysippus expanded the science of Logic most than any other philosopher of the Stoic School. He examined several elements in Logic such as hypothetical and disjunctional syllogisms, complex judgments, proofs, arguments, propositions, modality and sophisms. Moreover, Chrysippus advanced propositional logic by introducing basic inference schemata, the basis of the inference rules.

Concerning Chrysippus’ teachings on ethics, he proclaimed “unquestionably living according to Nature” (Ὁμολογουμένως τῆ φύσει ζῆν). He considered wisdom as the common root of all four virtues: justice, common sense, phronesis and bravery as well as the science of all human and divine things. For him, the quintessence of a perfect man is the sage, who is the only one with true eudaimonism (happiness). His virtues are irremovable and can only be taken away by phrenopathy. The sage’s eudaimonism is equal to the eudaimonism of the divine, Zeus, because the sage is rid of sadness and passions, always acting right. Hence the philosopher rejected the equality of man and consequently democracy and accepted the supremacy of the philosophers over the rest of the people who were totally ignorant of their ignorance. He considered the mass foolish and insane. He did not care about what they said or did nor was it of any worth to him as he characteristically said “If I paid any attention to them, I would not become a philosopher”.

With his excellent dialectic arguments, his oratory skills, his vast bibliography – he wrote 705 books – and wisdom, Chrysippus defended the School’s name from its rivals and disseminated the Stoic philosophy throughout the ages. He was bestowed political privileges by the Athenians and a statue of him was built in Ceramicus. It is said that it was, however, so short that it was overshadowed by the rest of them and was called Cryptippus (Κρύψιππος). He allegedly died of excessive laughter and was succeeded by Poseidonius.

Bibliography

1. “Chrysippus”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.
2. “Chrysippus”. Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Web. August 29, 2016.
3. Pleures, Konstantinos. Greek Philosophers. Athens: Hilektron Publications, 2014. Print.

Ibycus

Lyric Poet (6^th century BC)

He was born in Reggium of Southern Italy during the 6th century BC. He was of aristocratic descent; his father was also a poet who served in the courtyard of Polycrates of Samos. Ibycus was one of the nine great Lyric Poets of Ancient Greece. It is estimated that he wrote 7 poetic collections, of which only 40 lines survive from scattered fragments of his works. He is the creator of the encomium, a hymn of commemoration.

Ibycus’ most important poems are the erotic ones, in which love dominates as a theme. The theme of love is so great that in his poem Diary of an Unseen April Odysseus Elytis anecdotically characterizes Ibycus as an erotomaniac. Most of his poems are original and sentimental. They frequently express the fear of falling in love with someone or describe the beauty of youth. He seems to have been influenced by two lyric poets Stesichorus and Sappho as both Stesichorus and Ibycus wrote choral lyrics on mythological narratives.

Other elements found within Ibycus’ poetry are the vivid imagery and symbolism. In one of his poems quinces represent the erotic awakening, the “unwalked fairy garden” represents innocence while growing vines symbolize youth. Other poems of his are religiously themed. The dialect of his poems is Epic with Aeolic and Doric elements.

Ibycus created the sambuca, a musical stringed instrument thought to be a small triangular harp whose music accompanied the poet’s reciting while according to Suda Lexicon he also created the ibycinon, a similar musical instrument. He is the founder of the Ibycean Scheme, a grammatical innovation found in his poems.

Bibliography

1. “Ibycus”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946: Print.
2. ΙΒΥΚΟΣ 40. – Απόσπασμα 286 Page. Greek-language.gr. Web. August 26, 2016.
3. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Ibycus”. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 26 August. 2016.

Eudoxus of Cnidus

Mathematician, Astronomer, Philosopher, Inventor, Meteorologist, Geographer, Physician, Rhetorician, Lawmaker (408 BC – 355 BC)

The greatest mathematician of antiquity second to Archimedes and Apollonius of Perga. He was the one who “rescued” the ancient Greek mathematics from the dead-end they had reached after the discovery of asymmetry during the 5^th century BC. As an eminent astronomer he created the geocentric model and devised an astronomical instrument to interpret the planets’ movements. He is acknowledged worldwide as one of the greatest mathematicians who ever lived.

Eudoxus studied mathematics in Archytas’ school in Sicily and at the age of 23 he enrolled in Plato’s Academy where he studied medicine. He travelled to Egypt where he was taught astronomy by the priests of Heliopolis and later founded the Eudoxian Observatory. He returned to Greece where he founded the School of Cyzicus and a school in Athens. On Plato’s request he became a professor of sciences in Plato’s Academy and taught for most of his life, until he moved back to Cnidus and founded an observatory.

Eudoxus’ work on mathematics is titanic. He is credited by Archimedes as the founder of the Archimedean Property or Eudoxian Theorem on the Axioms of Continuity, which today dominate in modern higher mathematics. The Eudoxus Axiom forms the basis of calculus, which Eudoxus first discovered and applied and later Archimedes expanded. These axioms were later developed by Newton and Leibnitz. The discovery of the Method of Exhaustion belongs to Eudoxus. With it he was able to calculate areas and volumes of geometrical shapes which were unknown at the time. He was the first to prove that the volume of the pyramid is equal to 1/3 the volume of the prism that has the same height and base as the pyramid. In addition, he proved that the volume of the cone is 1/3 the volume of the cylinder with the same height and base.

Eudoxus perfected the analysis and synthesis in geometry, expanded the theory of proportionality and overcame the asymmetric problem that had been troubling ancient Greek mathematics, formulated the bisection principle, solved the Delian problem of the doubling of the cube using curved lines, even though unfortunately the solution was lost, developed the theory of irrational magnitudes and made important discoveries on the Theorem of the Golden Ratio. He also proved that the areas of circles are proportional to the squares of their diameter.

As a pioneer in astronomy, Eudoxus is considered the founder of mathematical astronomy. He was the first to introduce the concept of celestial bodies and explain their movement using a geometric model based on mathematic principles. With his observations of the star sky, he described the constellations, their position, the dates when the stars are visible, and the weather associated with each of their phases. He understood the need of mathematical analysis on interpreting astronomical findings. Moreover, he researched the sizes of the Sun, the Moon and the Earth, introduced the Οκταετηρίς (Octaeteris) and eight-year cycle calendar with 365 days of the year which 300 later was introduced by Julius Cesar.

His Theory of the Homocentric Spheres interpreted the movement of the planets using hippopedes, complex geometric curves, an invention of Eudoxus that formed the basis of mathematical astronomy. Using this theory he created the Homocentric Sphere System, a planetary system consisting of a number of rotating spheres depicting the 7 planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Zeus, Saturn, the Moon and the Sun. His geocentric planetary system achieved considerable acclaim, was accepted by Aristotle and by the scientific community was later perfected by his student Callipus and survived until the Renaissance. He wrote a treaty named On Velocities, which concerned the planetary movements. In his treaty Sphaeropoia Eudoxus first calculated the distances of the Sun and the Moon from Earth using his own genious methods. Eudoxus is therefore the founder of theoretical astronomy and celestial mechanics.

The introduction of mathematical axioms in geography is attributed to Eudoxus. He wrote studies on the weather, the climate and the wind. Numerous treaties concerning the climate in various places of the Earth and the zones of the globe sharing common astronomical data.

As an inventor, Eudoxus invented the planetary simulator, an instrument demonstrating the ostensible motion of the planets. It consisted of two concentric rings that when rotated simultaneously at opposite directions caused the planets to move in an octant motion. The system rested on a third ring that produced the complex orbit of the planet. His second invention, the “Spider” was a map of the celestial sphere. According to others, it was a sundial or some kind of astronomical instrument. The astrolabe was an instrument originally designed by Eudoxus and was later perfected by Hipparchus. In turn, the dioptres, instruments used for astronomical observations were perfected by Heron of Alexandria. Finally, the Pole was an instrument much more complex than Hipparchus’ astrolabe. It was a portable sundial which contained markings corresponding to the zodiac cycle. The movement of the sun caused its shadow to fall on one of the corresponding markings indicating the time, the day and the month of the year.

During his own lifetime, Eudoxus’ fame had reached its apogee. He was widely known as “Eudoxus the Endoxus” (Eudoxus the Glorious). Eratosthenes called him θεοειδῆ (God-like) and Strabo mentions him as the fourth greatest geographer. Sadly, absolutely none of Eudoxus’ works survived. Today a crater in the moon’s surface bears his name.

Bibliography

1. “Eudoxos o Knidios”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.
2. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. Ancient Greek Scientists. Athens: Georgiades, 1995. Print.
3. Kotsanas, Kostas. Ancient Greek Technology: The Inventions of the Ancient Greeks.  Pyrgos: Kostas Kotsanas, 2013. Print.
4. Koutoulas, Diamantis. The Ancient Greek Religion and the Mathematics. Thessaloniki: Psaras, 2001. Print.
5. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Eudoxus of Cnidus” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 23 August. 2016.

Herodotus

Historian (c485 BC – c413? BC)

Herodotus of Halicarnassus was a historian and geographer of the 5th century BC. First named Father of History by Cicero, his title was preserved throughout the ages because he was the first to write a book on world history in a scientific manner, with impartiality, research and critique. He was the first to introduce the term Ἱστορία (History) as the science of knowing, giving it its modern meaning and the first who attempted to write down historical facts with accuracy, truth and honesty. Herodotus spent much of his life in Athens, where he formed a close friendship with Pericles, Sophocles and Protagoras and founded a colony together with the latter in Southern Italy.

His magnum opus Ἰστορίαι (Histories) is the founding book of history in the Western World. It has been divided into 9 tomes each named after each Muse. The first book contains a proemium on the foundation of the Persian Empire and its rivalries with Greece. The second book is about Kambysus’ rule in Africa. The third book concerns Darius’ enthronement and rise to power, the siege of Samos by the Persians and its procession to Greece. The fourth book contains Darius’ campaigns against Scythia, Libya, Thrace and Hellespontus. The fifth is exclusively about the Ionian revolution while the sixth chronicles the glorious events leading to the Battle of Marathon. The seventh book in the series continues from where the sixth book left with the Battle of Thermopylae and the Battle of Salamis. The last two books of the series end with Xerxes’ retreat and the epic Battle of Plataea.

Contrary to popular belief Herodotus did not limit himself to history. He wrote books on anthropology, ethnography, biology and most importantly medicine. Herodotus’ books are of special interest because they are the primary source of pre-Hippocratic medicine. They include elements of pathology, surgery, psychiatry, ophthalmology, orthopedics and hygiene. They also contain descriptions on anthropologic findings such as traditions and practices of various races.

Herodotus’ works had tremendous influence worldwide even during antiquity. He did not simply document what happened; rather he proceeded in analysing, interpreting and explaining the historical facts using proofs he had gathered from meticulous research involving the city archives, oral accounts, older bibliography and personal investigations. For this reason they were free of mythological elements. He believed that behind every cause was the Divine, which was conceived by philosophers as the primordial principle of Anaximander.

Nevertheless, Herodotus was not objective and his writings contain a lot of historical errors, misconceptions and inaccuracies. This rose controversy among historians of later eras, most notably from Plutarch, who vehemently accused Herodotus for criticizing the Ionian revolution, the Thebans and the Corinthians, diminishing the Spartans’ contribution in the Persian Wars, disregarding Themistocles’ role in the Battle of Salamis, exaggerating the role of Athens and for being a “philobarbarian” by considering the Egyptians better than the Greeks. He even wrote a book entirely on Herodotus’ criticism called «Περὶ κακοηθείας Ἡροδότου». In spite of his flaws, however, he is regarded as a pioneer scientist as his contributions in history and anthropology are unique.

Bibliography

1. “Herodotus”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens: 1946. Print.
2. ΕΛΛΗΝΩΝ ΔΙΚΤΥΟ. ΗΡΟΔΟΤΟΣ. Hellinon.net. August 20, 2016. Web.

Pytheas

Oceanographer, Geographer, Explorer, Mathematician, Astronomer (4^th century BC)

Pytheas was a daring explorer and adventurer from the Greek city of Massalia who became the first Greek recorded in history to visit the British Isles during the 4^th century BC. With his travels in the northern seas and in the elusive island of Thule, Pytheas surpassed the known borders of the world.

Pytheas accurately calculated the latitude of Massalia using Anaximander’s gnomon, the perimeter of Britain (approximately 7400 km) and the distance from Massalia and Britain. He was the first who showed that the moon affects the tides, made observations on the summer solstice, the midnight sun, showed that the pole star is not at the true pole and identified the triangular shape of Britain. His primary works On the Ocean and Earth’s Period chronicle Pytheas’ travels in the northern seas of the globe and document his scientific observations and discoveries in the lands he visited.

Pytheas’ voyage began as a quest for tin and amber, two valuable elements used for trade with the neighboring city-states. Pytheas’ geographic and astronomic knowledge was the reason for him leading the expedition. He sailed to Gibraltar, then crossed the Pillars of Hercules and reached the Atlantic Ocean. Pytheas continued sailing along the shores of France until he reached Cornwall where he found tin. From there he continued north to Ireland, Scotland and Norway where he found amber. He then sailed to the Baltic Sea and explored the lands of northern Europe. His second voyage started from the Northern Isles of Great Britain, which he named Orkney Islands, a name that remains to this day. He then crossed the English Channel and followed his way back to Massalia. Fragments of his works reveal several descriptions of the Brittany peninsula, Ushant, the Isle of Wight, various ports of the ancient world as well as the tribes he met.

Lastly, Pytheas sailed to an island called Thule in his text, which he reached after sailing for 6 days from the northernmost part of Britain. Thule was the northernmost inhabited island found in the Arctic Circle. According to the fragments of his works, Thule had the longest daytime during the summer solstice. This is evident from Geminus’ accounts who wrote that “… the Barbarians showed us the place where the sun goes to rest. For it was the case that in these parts the nights were very short, in some places two, in others three hours long, so that the sun rose again a short time after it had set”. Pytheas had discovered the phenomenon of the midnight sun, which is observed in the lands in the Arctic Circle. Furthermore Pytheas witnessed icebergs, iceblocks and lava. Modern geographers are still bewildered as far as concerning the actual location of Thule.

It is presumed that this was Pytheas’ last voyage until he sailed back to his hometown. Renowned French admiral and explorer Louis Antoine de Bougainville wrote about Pytheas “We are obliged to place Pytheas in the catalogue of Vasco da Gama, Cristopher Colombus and Magellan. Them too a kind of conquerors who are worth surviving in the memory of men…”

Bibliography

1. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. Ancient Greek Scientists. Athens: Georgiades, 1995. Print.
2. ”Pytheas”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
3. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Pytheas” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 16 August. 2016.
4. ”Πυθέας ο Μασσαλιώτης”. mixanhtouxronou.gr. 11 Apr. 2016. Web. 17 Aug. 2016.

Themistocles

General, Statesman, Strategist (c. 524 – 459 BC)

Themistocles was an Athenian statesman and the leading commander of the victorious Battle of Salamis against the Persians in 480 BC.Born into an Athenian family, Themistocles was a skilled strategist and stood out from a young age; Greek historian Thucydides describes him as a man who had figurative prudence as a young man and being able to predict and solve forthcoming problems. In 490 BC. Themistocles fought against the Persian army in the decisive Battle of Marathon alongside the general Miltiades.

Following the fall of the aristocratic power in Athenian politics, Themistocles entered politics and became ruling archon of Athens in 493 BC. He managed to convince politicians and citizens that the war against  the Persian Empire was not over but a second invasion was on its way. As archon he built, organized an fortified the harbor of Piraeus after transferring it from Phaleron, and organized the naval forces of Athens, building up to 200 triremes. Therefore, when Xerxes’ army was to invade Athens, they would be ready to face it.

Learning that Xerxes’ army was marching towards Athens, the Athenians sought the help of the Oracle of Delphi to request for a prediction. After a pessimistic and discouraging first prediction, the Athenians were given a prediction that said that the ”wooden wall” was impenetrable.  Themistocles not only deciphered the first discouraging prediction into a victory for the Greeks but also the second one, convincing most Athenians that ”wooden walls” referred to the wooden triremes and not the wooden fortress of the Acropolis (as it was back then). His decision that a naval battle would lead the Greeks to victory verified Thucydides’ description of Themistocles. Themistocles also managed to evacuate the city of Athens and lead the people to Peloponnese in time while ensuring their well-being.

In 480 BC. Themistocles, along with Adeimandos and Eurybiades led a series of naval battles against the Persian army: The Battle of Artemisium and the Battle of Salamis. The Battle of Artemisium took place simultaneously with the Battle of Thermopylae. King Leonidas and the Spartans would lead an army to block the Persians from descending to Athens and Peloponnese from land, while Themistocles would block their naval forces. Following the defeat of Leonidas at Thermopylae, the Greek naval army decided to retreat to Salamis. Using his persuasion skills and his strategic knowledge, Themistocles came up with the ideal strategy to defeat the Persian army in Salamis, persuaded the Peloponnese army to join the battle, and subsequently lured the Persians into believing that the Greeks had surrendered and awaited in Salamis with the help of his Persian slave Sicinnus. Xerxes bought into it and the Battle of Samalis began.Themistocles had organized the battle in such a way so as the massive Persian naval army would become trapped between the narrow gulf and the Greeks, with their smaller triremes, would penetrate the Persian ships. The Persian naval forces were aligned in rows, so each time the front row would be attacked by the Greek ships, the following ones would be unable to flee as land was behind them. Themistocles’ genius plan  defeated the outnumbering Persian army with very few casualties: The Greek army constituted of 378 or 310 triremes with 70.000-80.000 men. The Persian army constituted of 1207 triremes with 250.000-300.00 men. The Greeks lost 40 or 60 triremes and the Persians 200-300.

The Greek victory shook the Persian army to its core. Xerxes, who was watching the entire battle from mount Aegaleon was so frightened that ordered the retreat of his entire army from Phaleron and Athens. Themistocles’ outstanding work and bravery was hailed by the Greeks; the Spartans awarded him with the award of bravery and skill. They also awarded him with the most beautiful chariot of Sparta. During the Olympic games of 476 BC. when people saw Themistocles entering the stadium they cheered and hailed him as a national hero. Following the battle, Themistocles returned to politics, building a giant wall to protect the city of Athens. After the acclaim came his downfall which resulted to a sad and awful fate.

Historians regard Themistocles as a master strategist and tactician and the Battle of Salamis as one of the most important battle in human history; it is estimated that had the Greeks lost the battle, the Persians would have not only conquered Greece but move and expand throughout Europe. The Greek civilization would have ceased to flourish and therefore Europe and the rest of the western world would have never existed as science, art, philosophy, technology and politics would have never reached them. Consequently, the Battle of Salamis marks the turning-point in Greek, European and world history and the man behind the victory is undoubtedly a timeless figure of heroism.

Bibliography

1. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Themistocles” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 11 August. 2016.
2. ”Themistocles”. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
3. Volonakis, Ioannis. The Great Leaders of Ancient Greece. Georgiades: Athens, 1997.

Anaximander

Philosopher, Mathematician, Astronomer, Physicist (610 BC – 546 BC)

One of the greatest minds who ever lived, second great philosopher of Miletus after Thales, teacher of Pythagoras and student of the former, whom he succeeded in the Milesian School. An astronomer, biologist, cartographer, cosmologist and cosmographer, Anaximander’s contribution to philosophy is considered to have been of great influence and importance. He was the founder of scientific geometry, innovator of mathematical astronomy and of biology of evolution. His theories on metaphysics, cosmology and the apeiron (infinitum) are unique, way ahead of their times and puzzle scientists and philosophers to this day.

He was the first philosopher to write a book entitled “Περὶ Φύσεως” (De Naturae), in which the world was interpreted in a scientific manner free from mythological dogmas. The book contained maps of the world and possibly of the night sky with the distances of stars and planets. This daring book was studied by Aristotle even though it was very hard to find even in antiquity. Anaximander compiled the first geographical map of the world based on the scientific evidence contained all of the geographical data that existed. The map was highly received by his contemporaries.

Anaximander’s astronomical and planetary system was constructed based on geometrical analogies and calculations. He devised the gnomon, a sundial-like tool used to determine the equinoxes with its shadow, the hours and the duration of the day. His excellent knowledge in geometry enabled him to measure the distance between stars and place them in firmament. Among his most important discoveries were the fact that the sun did not “drown” into the ocean in the west and rise again from it in the east, rather that the sun follows a cyclical orbit and that the Earth floats unsupported.

His rejection of the mythological creation of the universe and the origin of beings by God led him to the formulation of his theory involving the apeiron (the infinite). Anaximander’s idea on the infinite was that it was the source of all life, the immortal principle that rules and defines all worlds. All living beings are created from the infinite. He rejected Thales’ theory that life was created by a change from a primary substance, which was water according to Thales, and introduced the theory that life was created by opposing forms of matter as a result of the action of perpetual motion (αϊδίου κινήσεως). This perpetual motion was the cause of the creation of life. The fact, however, that most of Anaximander’s works have been lost, combined with the fact that he used words of various meanings has given multiple interpretations to his theory on the infinite. Others believe that Anaximander possibly meant that the infinite was in fact all the elements together.

One of his most astounding and concurrently interesting theories that changed the world was the existence of parallel worlds. He speculated that the Cosmos is made up of an indefinite number of worlds. The world constantly decays, consequently wears off and is then reborn infinite times, presenting an infinite number of cosmic phases.

Anaximander was the first to speak about the evolution of species predating Darwin by thousands of years. According to his theory, the first living organisms originated from the sea and had a prickly skin, which slowly fell off as the organisms moved toward land and became new species. Since it seemed unlikely how a toddler could take care of itself and survive, Anaximander believed that man came into being from animals since they could live by themselves from a very small age. To support his theory, Anaximander provided the example of the school shark. Nevertheless, for Anaximander, the beginning of all living matter in the world was the infinite. All beings escaped from infinity and became finite by taking on a form. Because of their imperfection, beings are destroyed, lose their form and return to infinity.

Bibliography

1. Anaximandros. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
2. Georgakopoulos, Konstantinos. Ancient Greek Scientists. Athens: Georgiades, 1995. Print.
3. Pleures, Konstantinos. Greek Philosophers. Athens: Hilektron, 2014. Print.

Lycurgus

King of Sparta, Philosopher, Lawmaker (c900 BC – 800 BC)

Lycurgus has always been an enigmatic figure whose entire life and work is shrouded by a veil of mystery. From antiquity he was regarded as a mythical figure whose name hided many glorious statesmen of Sparta under it. Nothing about him can be said without doubt. Nevertheless, his large influence on the political system of Sparta is certain.

The most important information about Lycurgus is drawn from the works of Plutarch. He was a descendent of the royal family of the Procleides. He travelled to Crete, Egypt and Libya where he studied their political systems. Lycurgus was Sparta’s greatest lawmaker, legislator and political reformer, responsible for Sparta’s militaristic political system which made Sparta Athens’ greatest rival. His political system put an end to the civil wars of Sparta and weakened the power of the King by giving power to a series new ruling classes. The Assembly of Elders (Γερουσία), composed of 28 members over the age of 60 was the Senate. It had the power of a legislative body similar to modern days’ Parliament. The Apella was a democratic deliberative assembly composed of men who were over 30 years old. They would gather and discuss multiple subjects regarding the commons. They could also accept or reject laws passed by the Assembly of Elders for discussion by voting. The Ephors were 5 men who shared the power of the state together with the King.

The Lygurgean system focused on discipline of the people from young age and their inurement. Men and women became responsible citizens and capable guardians of their city, placing above all their freedom and what was best for their city, even if that was unjust. Men became acquainted with the art of war and learned to master it. Young people learned to respect and subjugate to their elders while agamy was contemned. Lycurgus also banned the use of foreign currencies and is considered to have introduced the works of Homer to Sparta.

When his work was finished, Lycurgus went to the oracle of Delphi, to assure himself from God Apollo on his laws’ value. He was told from the Oracle: “You came, Lycurgus, to my temple, full of wealth and beauty. Loved by Zeus and the rest of the Olympians. I wonder, as a God or as a man must I give you a divination? But as a God I consider, Lycurgus, to address you!”.

In general, the Spartan political system was mixed with oligarchy, monarchy and elements of democracy. Still, it rendered Sparta one of the most powerful city-states in all of Greece for hundreds of years. Throughout these years, the Lycurgean system remained almost intact, making the Spartan citizens loyal and obedient soldiers of their homeland. After his death, the Spartans built a temple in his honour where every year rituals were performed in his memory. They also invented a celebration called the Lycurgides which were celebrated once every year.

The political system that Lycurgus established was “divine”. According to Plutarch, its ultimate goal was to rid people’s soul of lubricity, idolatry, illogical fear, superstitions and ignorance and aimed at the catharsis and lytrosis of the peoples’ soul. For only then would men and women be truly free and only in freedom would man achieve somatic, psychic, intellectual and spiritual well-being. A political system devoid of fallacies and illusions meant that its people did to need to struggle for survival. The eudaimonism of a city came about only when its people were virtuous and self-reliant.

Bibliography

1. Gravingger, Petros. Pythagoras and the Mystic Teachings of Pythagoreanism. Ideotheatron Dimeli: Athens, 1998. Print.
2. Lycurgus. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.
3. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. ”Lycurgus” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Web. 7, August. 2016.

Pheidias

Sculptor, Painter, Architect, Mathematician, Philosopher (c480 BC – 430 BC)

The greatest Greek sculptor who ever lived, initiated into the mysteries of the Greek Meditation (Ἑλληνικὸς Διαλογισμός), flourished during the Golden Age of Pericles when he sculpted the Parthenon Marbles, the statue of Athena Parthenos and the statue of Zeus in Olympia and was glorified as a god of sculpture by his contemporaries.

In Ancient Greece, sculptures occupied a very special place in the Greek Meditation. The sculptor, being an initiate of the mysteries studied nature, communicated with it and acted as the intermediate between the statue and the observer. Sculptures acted as powerful initiative tools in the mysteries. The sculptures did not move and did not speak. They were immobile and silent. This gave the observer unlimited time to study the sculpture using “the soul’s eye” (ψυχῆς ὄμμα). Automatically, the observer’s soul would jump from the aesthetic field, the mortal world, to the noetic field, the world of the Divine once he/she conceived the original, the prototype idea which the artist, working in the noetic field, had received from the Divine Beings and had crafted the sculpture based on that idea. That idea was transmitted to the observer, transformed into an optic presentation and worked in their soul. The sculpture and the observer communicated with each other when the observer resonated to the sculpture’s frequency. Only in antiquity did sculpture reach such perfection where artists such as Pheidias could represent the prototype ideas in the aesthetic field and bring about equilibrium to the soul.

Pheidias’ works such as the statue of Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon, the statue of Athena Promachos between the Propylaia and the Erechtheion, and the statue of Zeus in Olympia possessed such powers. The statue of Athena Parthenos was 12m high. The unclothed parts of the statue were made of ivory, the clothing was made of gold and the inside was made of wood. Wood and ivory are poor electrical conductors but good conductors of energies from higher spiritual levels. The opposite is true for gold. The statue, together with all the rest statues around it were not merely for decoration (the term statue in the English language is inaccurate and misleading). They were symbols that spoke to the observer. Pheidias’ masterpiece narrated the story of the soul, which he had conceived from the Gods.

The same symbology was present in the statue of Zeus in Olympia, one of the 7 Wonders of the World, which was also chryselephantine. Other notable masterpieces of Pheidias include the Parthenon Marbles, the most beautiful sculptures which decorated the monument of Athens, the chryselephantine statue of Athena of Pellene and Athena of Elis, the bronze statue of Athena of Lemnos, statues of Hermes, Aphrodite and Apollo, numerous exquisite statues of men and heroes (ἀνδρῶν τε ἡρώων τε), namely the apotheosis of Miltiades in the Battle of Marathon, Amazons, as well as numerous paintings.

All of the Ancient Greek artists, particularly Pheidias were influenced by the Divine in order to create masterpieces of insuperable beauty which enabled the soul of those who observed them and deciphered their meaning have contact with the Divine planes. Lesa quoted on Pheidias “This great craftsman of the Olympian Gods presents himself as an Olympian as well, superior to all other craftsmen of Greece. Because this God of Greek sculpture, like Zeus, whom he depicted beautifully in his magnificence, gives the impression of a wonderful spirit, which dominated the Greek art, just like the Parthenon dominated the Acropolis… ”. Today the symbol φ of the golden ratio is named after the first letter of his name. Pheidias used the golden ratio in his sculptures. The Parthenon is also built according to the golden ratio.

Bibliography

1. Altani. Arritoi Logoi Kentauroi, Amazones, Medousa. Georgiades: Athens, 2005. Print.
2. Pheidias. Helios New Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Passas, I. Athens, 1946. Print.